Northern Arkansas Research Articles

Identification and distribution of Armillaria species associated with an oak decline event in the Arkansas Ozarks

SummaryForests in the Ozark Mountains of northern Arkansas recently experienced a widespread oak decline event. Armillaria, a root rot fungus, has been associated with other oak decline events and may have been an important contributing factor to tree mortality in this event. Although Armillaria has been identified from the Ozark Mountains in Missouri, it has never been investigated in the Arkansas Ozarks. Molecular diagnostic techniques were used in this study to identify species of Armillaria present on roots removed from dead trees of two common oak species, northern red oak, Quercus rubra L., and white oak, Q. alba L., from three geographic areas and on three topographic positions – ridges, south‐ and west‐facing benches. Armillaria(A. mellea, A. gallica or A. tabescens) was identified from 31% of root samples taken from 102 trees in seven of nine sample plots. Armillaria mellea, occurred most often (20 samples, both oak species on seven plots) followed by A. gallica (10 samples, northern red oak only on four plots), and A. tabescens occurred twice (on northern red oak in a single plot). Thus, all three Armillaria species occurred on northern red oaks while A. mellea was the only species recovered from white oaks. Results varied by topographic position with samples from tree roots on ridges having the fewest positive identifications, one of 29. West‐facing benches had the highest positive samples with 20 of 41 testing positive and trees on south‐facing benches were intermediate with 11 of 32 samples from infected trees. This study documents the occurrence of three species of Armillaria in the Arkansas Ozarks and their association with oak mortality resulting from an oak decline event coupled with a red oak borer, Enaphalodes rufulus, outbreak. Further, it documents some potential variation in host/pathogen combinations and forest site conditions.

Relationships between groundwater level and furbearer abundance in the Northern Arkansas Mississippi Alluvial Valley

AbstractAbundances of hydrophilic furbearers, such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), are known to change with alterations in surface water availability. Unconfined aquifers dynamically interact with surface water, and surface water availability is often reduced when groundwater levels decline. However, the relationship between groundwater level and furbearer abundance is not well understood. Groundwater depths in the Mississippi Alluvial Aquifer have increased such that critical groundwater areas have been designated in the Arkansas portion of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. We tested the effect of groundwater level on furbearer abundance using three depth‐to‐groundwater categories: shallow (<6·4 m), medium (6·4–13·99 m) and deep (≥14·0 m). In each category we surveyed furbearer relative abundance with scent station lines (N = 40) and minimum density estimates with aerial thermal infrared transects (N = 7). Relative abundance indices of furbearers collectively were not different (F = 2·67, P = 0·08), nor were minimum density estimates (F = 2·21, P = 0·22) among groundwater depths. Only relative abundance indices for Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana; F = 4·76, P = 0·01) were different among groundwater depths. More research is needed to discern if potential ecologically significant relationships exist between groundwater level and furbearer abundance. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Geochemistry and Evolution of Mississippi Valley-Type Mineralizing Brines from the Tri-State and Northern Arkansas Districts Determined by LA-ICP-MS Microanalysis of Fluid Inclusions

The Tri-State and Northern Arkansas districts of the Ozark plateau, North America, are both classic examples of Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) mineralization, formed by continent-scale basinal brine migration as a result of the uplift of the Arkoma foreland basin in response to the Early Permian Ouachita orogeny. The chemistry of the fluids responsible for both sulfide mineralization and gangue precipitation in these districts was studied by quantitative microanalysis of individual fluid inclusions in quartz and sphalerite using 213-nm laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Using halogen systematics, an evaporative seawater origin for the brines was determined, but higher Br concentrations suggest that the sphalerite-hosted “ore fluids” underwent a significantly greater degree of evaporation in the initial stages of fluid evolution compared to brines hosted by gangue phases. Metal contents of the brines responsible for quartz and dolomite precipitation are low compared to modern basinal brines, but many of the fluid inclusions trapped in sphalerite in both districts contained anomalously high metal concentrations, suggesting that mineralization involved incursion of a metal-rich fluid of distinct geochemistry. Examination of the multicomponent chemical characteristics revealed that dolomitization was probably an important process in the early chemical evolution of fluids that infiltrated both districts. In the Tri-State district, precipitation of sulfides was most likely driven by mixing of the metalliferous fluid with another brine, possibly rich in reduced sulfur. In northern Arkansas the compositional variations observed are best explained by local dissolution of the carbonate host rock. This may have been the process that ultimately drove sulfide deposition through fluid neutralization and reduction. Alternatively, the digestion of the host rock may have been the result of locally generated acidity produced by the deposition of sulfides. The discovery of anomalously metal-rich fluids linked to mineralization suggests that these deposits are not simply the product of typical basin evolution, helping to explain the abundance of MVT mineralization in some forelands, whereas others are barren. It is likely that a significant portion of the history of the hydrothermal flow system was characterized by the precipitation of barren gangue assemblages from metal-poor brines, with metalliferous fluids only being expelled from a specific stratigraphic package at a distinct stage of basin evolution.

Fall Growth Potential of Cereal Grain Forages in Northern Arkansas

In Arkansas, maximizing fall forage production from cereal grains is important for optimizing growth of fall‐weaned calves (Bos taurus). Our objectives were to evaluate eight cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), oat (Avena sativa L.), rye (Secale cereale L.), and triticale (×Triticosecale Wittmack) for their potential to accumulate fall forage dry matter (DM). At Fayetteville during 2004, triticale and oat cultivars accumulated DM in a cubic (P ≤ 0.01) pattern over time, most likely because growing tillers exhibited stem elongation, and were then susceptible to freeze damage in late December. Wheat and rye cultivars accumulated DM in less complex patterns over harvest dates, but the maximum yield for any wheat cultivar was only 2554 kg ha−1 compared to 4661 kg ha−1 for oat. For Batesville 2004 and Fayetteville 2005, DM yields ranked similarly, but respective mean yields (491 and 988 kg ha−1) averaged over all harvest dates were only 25 and 50% of those for Fayetteville 2004 (1960 kg ha−1), largely due to drought. For Batesville 2005, growing conditions were somewhat unique relative to other site‐years, and wheat, rye, and triticale cultivars accumulated an overall mean of 4148 kg ha−1 of forage DM on the final (4 January) harvest date. In contrast, oat cultivars were sensitive to freezing temperatures in November, and ranked last among all cultivars for yield on the final harvest date. Producers can usually improve fall forage production with cultivars that exhibit some stem elongation when planted in early September; however, this trait may make winter survival problematic.

Callus formation and bark moisture as potential physical defenses of northern red oak,Quercus rubra, against red oak borer,Enaphalodes rufulus(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

AbstractThe red oak borer,Enaphalodes rufulus(Haldeman), is a native wood-boring beetle implicated as a major contributor to recent high levels of oak mortality in northern Arkansas. Northern red oaks,Quercus rubraL. (Fagaceae), were grouped into three classes of red oak borer infestation history based on crown condition and basal red oak borer emergence holes: class I (low infestation), class II (moderate infestation), and class III (high infestation). In 2004 and 2005, trees from each class were mechanically wounded and callus formation was measured after one year. Class I trees exhibited significantly greater callus formation than class III trees in both years. Monthly measurements in spring and summer of 2006 indicated significant differences in callus formation among classes, with class I trees healing over significantly earlier. Moisture was measured in bark samples removed 1 week and 4 weeks after initiation of three treatments: control, mechanical wounding, and artificial insertion of larvae. Moisture levels did not vary among infestation classes or treatments. This research indicates that bark moisture is likely not a defense against red oak borer, but that callus overgrowth may be a defense early in the second year of the life cycle in healthy trees.

Stocking Rate and Supplementation of Stocker Cattle Grazing Wheat Pasture Interseeded into Bermudagrass in Northern Arkansas

During a 2-yr study, 48 steers (24/yr, initial BW = 240 ± 2.9 kg in yr 1 and 325 ± 1.6kg in yr 2) wereplaced on 8 Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon [L.] Pers.) pastures (1.6 ha, n = 4; 2.4 ha, n = 4) interseeded with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), creating stocking rates of 0.81 ha/steer (LOW) or 0.54 ha/steer (HIGH). Steers in LOW pastures were offered either no supplement or were fed soybean hulls (SBH) at a rate of 0.5% of BW. Steers in HIGH were fed SBH at either 0.5 or 0.75% of BW. Bermudagrass hay was offered ad libitum to all pastures. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design; stocking rate and supplementation treatment combinations were the main effects, pasture was the experimental unit, and year was a random effect. Final BW, total BW gain, and ADG did not differ (P ≥ 0.14). Increasing stocking rates increased (P = 0.01) grazing-d per hectare by 50% and tended (P = 0.07) to increase hay disappearance per hectare. Body weight gain per hectare tended (P = 0.09) to increase 14kg for LOW fed 0.5% BW vs. unsup plemented LOW. Increased stocking rate increased (P < 0.01) BW gain per hectare by 63% compared with unsupple-mented LOW and by 44% compared with LOW fed 0.5% BW. Results of the study indicated that feeding moderate levels of SBH to steers grazing wheat pasture will facilitate increases in stocking rate and BW gain per hectare. Furthermore, the added cost of supplementation can be partially offset by reductions in hay requirements.

Placobdella cryptobranchii (Rhynchobdellida: Glossiphoniidae) on Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi (Ozark Hellbender) in Arkansas and Missouri

Placobdella cryptobranchii is a rarely collected leech of the Ozark hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi) in northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, U.S.A. Between October 2002 and August 2005, 58 hellbenders were examined from Eleven Point River (Randolph Co., Arkansas and Oregon Co., Missouri), the north fork of the White River (Ozark Co., Missouri), and the Spring River (Fulton Co., Arkansas). Forty-one of the 58 hellbenders (70.7%) were infested with 1–140 leeches with a mean intensity (±SD) of 8.7 (±22.1) and a relative abundance (±SD) of 6.3 (±18.9). Contingency table analysis and t-tests revealed no significant differences in prevalence and mean intensity among various years and localities sampled. Leech size did not substantially change over the time period sampled. The dorsal pigmentation of live specimens of P. cryptobranchii is described for the first time.

Optimization of Sampling Methods for Within-Tree Populations of Red Oak Borer, &lt;I&gt;Enaphalodes rufulus&lt;/I&gt; (Haldeman) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

In the Ozark Mountains of northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, an oak decline event, coupled with epidemic populations of red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus Haldeman), has resulted in extensive red oak (Quercus spp., section Lobatae) mortality. Twenty-four northern red oak trees, Quercus rubra L., infested with red oak borer, were felled in the Ozark National Forest between March 2002 and June 2003. Infested tree boles were cut into 0.5-m sample bolts, and the following red oak borer population variables were measured: current generation galleries, live red oak borer, emergence holes, and previous generation galleries. Population density estimates from sampling plans using varying numbers of samples taken randomly and systematically were compared with total census measurements for the entire infested tree bole. Systematic sampling consistently yielded lower percent root mean square error (%RMSE) than random sampling. Systematic sampling of one half of the tree (every other 0.5-m sample along the tree bole) yielded the lowest values. Estimates from plans systematically sampling one half the tree and systematic proportional sampling using seven or nine samples did not differ significantly from each other and were within 25% RMSE of the "true" mean. Thus, we recommend systematically removing and dissecting seven 0.5-m samples from infested trees as an optimal sampling plan for monitoring red oak borer within-tree population densities. This optimal sampling plan should allow for collection of acceptably accurate within-tree population density data for this native wood-boring insect and reducing labor and costs of dissecting whole trees.

The feasibility of organ procurement at a hospital-independent facility: A working model of efficiency

The feasibility of organ procurement at a hospital-independent facility: A working model of efficiency

Invasive Crayfish Orconectes neglectus Threatens Native Crayfishes in the Spring River Drainage of Arkansas and Missouri

Invasive species are one of the major threats to biological diversity. Invasive species of crayfish are known to negatively impact native species in aquatic ecosystems. We recently found that an Ozark endemic crayfish, Orconectes neglectus, has been introduced into the Spring River drainage of southern Missouri and northern Arkansas and appears to have the potential to negatively impact the native communities. We used quantitative kick netting along the Spring River and selected tributaries to determine the distribution and abundance of O. neglectus and its potential to impact native crayfish species. The native crayfishes Orconectes eupunctus, a species of special concern, and Cambarus hubbsi appear to no longer occur throughout much of their former range in the Spring River drainage where O. neglectus is now abundant. Orconectes eupunctus, C. hubbsi, and O. neglectus mainly used fast-flowing riffle and run habitats with a mix of gravel, cobble, and boulder, whereas the other common species collected, Orconectes punctimanus and Orconectes ozarkae, were more generalists in habitat use and were found at all sampled sites. Orconectes eupunctus and C. hubbsi were positively associated with each other, but negatively associated with O. neglectus, despite their similar habitat use. These results provide evidence that O. neglectus is expanding its range, possibly to the detriment of O. eupunctus and C. hubbsi. An intensive field survey and manipulative experiments would be required to confirm the disappearance of the native species, and the mechanisms involved.

Changes in Forest Structure Associated with Oak Decline in Severely Impacted Areas of Northern Arkansas

Abstract Four mature northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.)–white oak (Quercus alba L.) stands in the Boston Mountains of northern Arkansas were studied to describe the vegetation dynamics of forests heavily impacted by oak decline. Northern red oak was the species most susceptible to decline. Across the four stands, 51–75% of red oak density (trees/ha) was dead or dying, as was 40–70% of the red oak basal area. Red oak damage occurred across a range of tree sizes. Healthy red oak had low populations of red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus Haldeman), and dead/dying red oak supported large numbers of borers. Impacts on white oak were less severe and generally limited to smaller trees. Decline had changed what once were red oak-dominated stands to more mixed forests of white oak, hickory (Carya spp.), red oak, blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.), and red maple (Acer rubrum L.). Understory trees and seedlings were predominantly blackgum, red maple, hickory, black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida L.), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum [Nutt.] Nees). However, well-developed red and white oak advance regeneration was present in all stands. It is unclear if the death of overstory trees will favor the regeneration of nonoaks, or whether oak regeneration will successfully recruit within canopy gaps created by this disturbance.

Influence of an Invasive Crayfish Species on Diurnal Habitat Use and Selection by a Native Crayfish Species in an Ozark Stream

Abstract The crayfish Orconectes neglectus chaenodactylus has recently been introduced into the Spring River drainage in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas and appears to be displacing the native species O. eupunctus. To determine if O. eupunctus and O. neglectus chaenodactylus compete for habitat, we examined if either species shift habitats when in the presence of one another. Habitat use of juvenile and adult crayfish was determined in six habitat types (backwater, pool, riffle, run, stream margin and vegetation) with a quadrat sampler during July/August 2003 at three sites: (1) an upstream site where O. neglectus chaenodactylus occurs, (2) a zone of overlap where both species occur and (3) a downstream site where O. eupunctus occurs. Habitat selection was determined by comparing habitat use to habitat availability. Redundancy Analyses were used to determine the relationship between crayfish densities and measured environmental variables (current velocity, water depth and percent boulder, cobble, ...

Effects of Prescribed Fire on the Vegetation of a Savanna-Glade Complex in Northern Arkansas

Abstract In Spring of 1995 and 1997, 170 ha of a savanna-glade complex in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas were burned. These prescribed burns included 5 of 18 permanent plots established across the site in 1993. We surveyed the ground flora, seedling, sapling, and overstory vegetation of these plots before and after burning. The burns greatly impacted the sapling layer, where density decreased from 2540/ha preburn to 610/ha after the second burn. Ground flora richness was unchanged following burning, but evenness and diversity increased. Species richness, evenness, and diversity also increased on the unburned plots. We observed large increases in the cover of several glade and savanna species after burning. We observed similar trends, but of lesser magnitude, on unburned plots.

Performance of Stocker Cattle Grazing Cool-Season Annual Grass Mixtures in Northern Arkansas

Over 3yr, cool-season annual grasses, including oats (Avena sativa L), cereal rye (Secale cereale L; CR), annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.; RG), and soft-red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L) or the combinations of CR and RG (RRG); wheat and CR (WR); wheat and RG (WRG); or wheat, CR, and RG (WRRG) were planted in twenty-four 0.81-ha pastures on the University of Arkansas Livestock and Forestry Branch Station near Batesville to evaluate the effect of species of cool-season annual grass on the growth of stocker calves. Grazing was initiated on January 6, October 23, and October 30 in Year 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Summarized across year, animal performance during the fall and winter was not affected (P=0.20) by combination of cool-season annual grass, averaging 1.16 kg/d. Across year, the greatest ADG during the spring was observed for stocker calves on the RG, RRG, wheat, and WRG treatments, which did not differ (P>0.10). The spring ADG of stocker calves on the RRG treatment was 19% greater (P<0.02) than that of stocker calves on oats, CR, WR, and WRRG. Across year, gain per hectare was not different (P>0.10) for calves on the RRG, RG, WRG, and wheat treatments; calves on RRG had greater (P= 0.05) gain per hectare than calves on WRRG. Addition of RG to CR or wheat yielded the greatest in ADG and gain per hectare in 2 of the 3yr and when averaged across year. If this enterprise were used for custom grazing and pasture were charged at $35/45.4kg of BW gain, profit per hectare would be best for RG, RRG, wheat, and WRG (averaging $305.29, $313.64, $305.86, and $295.93/ha, respectively).

Distribution, Habitat Use and Life History of Stream-dwelling Crayfish in the Spring River Drainage of Arkansas and Missouri with a Focus on the Imperiled Mammoth Spring Crayfish (Orconectes marchandi)

Abstract The Mammoth Spring crayfish (Orconectes marchandi) is listed as endangered by the American Fisheries Society's Endangered Species Committee and globally impaired by the Missouri Natural Heritage Database. Recorded at only three locations in the Spring River watershed (southern Missouri and northern Arkansas), little information exists on its range, associations with other crayfish and habitat selection. We sampled stream-dwelling crayfish with kicknets and quadrat samplers during spring-summer over 2 y in the Spring River drainage to determine distribution, relative density, habitat use, species associations, and life history characteristics of O. marchandi and other associated crayfish species. Nine crayfish species were collected in the Spring River watershed including a previously unrecorded invasive species, O. neglectus chaenodactylus, that appears to have replaced the native O. eupunctus from a portion of the watershed where it was previously abundant. The known distribution of O. marchandi...

The establishment and development of oak forests in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas

The disturbance history of six mature white oak (Quercus alba L.) – northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.) – hickory (Carya spp.) stands in the Ozark Mountains of northern Arkansas were reconstructed using tree-ring and fire-scar analysis. Results indicate that all six stands originated in the early 1900s following timber harvesting and (or) fire. These disturbances initiated a pulse of oak-dominated establishment. Most sites were periodically burned during the next several decades. Abrupt radial growth increases in all stands during the 1920s to 1940s reflected additional disturbances. These perturbations likely provided growing space for existing trees, but did not result in increased seedling establishment. Thus, multiple disturbances were important in the origin and development of the stands studied. By the 1930s and 1940s, oak establishment was replaced by shade-tolerant, fire-intolerant non-oak species; few oak recruited into tree size classes after the 1950s. The decrease in oaks and the increase in non-oaks coincided with fire suppression. Few scars were recorded during the past 60–70 years. Prescribed fire may be an important management tool in regenerating oak forests in northern Arkansas.

Exploitation of Nile Tilapia in a Closed‐System Public Fishing Reservoir in Northern Arkansas

AbstractNile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus have been stocked as a forage species annually since 2001 in Lake Hogue, a 101‐ha, closed‐system public fishing reservoir in northeastern Arkansas. A mail‐in reward tag study was implemented in 2003 to determine total estimated harvest, contribution of Nile tilapia to the lake's fishery, and impact of angler harvest on Nile tilapia reproduction. Estimates of harvest were corrected for tag loss (1.1%), tag‐induced mortality (1.0%), and nonreporting of tags by anglers (53% reporting rate). Angler‐hours were compared between anglers targeting Nile tilapia and those targeting other species. Anglers harvested an estimated 83% of the stocked Nile tilapia (56% of stocked fish were captured by traditional panfishing techniques; 27% were captured by use of dip nets during the winter die‐off in late November). Anglers targeting primarily Nile tilapia fished significantly longer (5.7 h/angler) than individuals who incidentally caught Nile tilapia while fishing for other species (4.5 h/angler). Analysis of the economic impact of stocking Nile tilapia demonstrated a benefit‐cost ratio of 0.38. Harvest of Nile tilapia did not apparently interfere with the management goal of using the fish as a forage species for game fishes. Tag return data strongly suggested that at midday during the hot summer months, when fishing pressure had traditionally been low, anglers targeted Nile tilapia in favor of the traditional target species (e.g., bluegill Lepomis macrochirus and redear sunfish L. microlophus).

Development and Comparison of Intensive and Extensive Sampling Methods and Preliminary Within-Tree Population Estimates of Red Oak Borer (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas

Populations of red oak borer, Enaphalodes rufulus (Haldeman), a native wood-boring beetle, seem to be at unprecedented levels that are coinciding with extensive oak mortality occurring in the Ozark Mountains of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri. To quantify population levels, we developed intensive and extensive sampling methods with respect to the seasonal phenology of active and quiescent stages of the borer’s synchronous 2-yr life cycle. Intensive whole-tree sampling yields data for the entire infested tree bole and provides baseline data for development of less time-consuming sampling methods. Extensive partial-tree sampling uses a nine-sample proportional sampling scheme to estimate densities, which are extrapolated to the whole tree. Data comparison reveals extensive estimates and intensive data are not significantly different, thus verifying extensive sampling as a relatively accurate and acceptable sampling method. Preliminary data from 58 trees confirm epidemic population levels in three areas of the Ozark National Forest in northern Arkansas. Mean number of phloem galleries initiated by current generation larvae on 38 trees was 599 ± 50 (SE) per tree, average number of live red oak borer found in 57 trees was 77 ± 15 per tree, and mean number of previous generation heartwood galleries present in 38 trees was 185 ± 30. Data generated through this research will permit detailed studies of red oak borer biology and mortality, facilitate development of less time-consuming field sampling techniques, and set the stage for further study of factors contributing to the current outbreak and associated tree mortality.

The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861-1865

The Uncivil War: Irregular Warfare in Upper South, 1861-1865. By Robert R. Mackey. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004. Pp. xii, 288. Acknowledgments, maps, illustrations, tables, appendices, notes, bibliography, index. $34.95.) Robert R. Mackey's The Uncivil War brings fresh and inventive perspective on irregular during Civil War, looking at subject from nineteenth-century military point of view. This extremely readable, convincingly argued volume offers insights into triad of southern irregular warfare-guerrilla, partisan, and raider-and efforts of Federal to develop effective tactics against rebel irregulars. The book is arranged with two chapters covering each leg of triad, first addressing Confederate tactics and next concentrating on Union countermeasures. Mackey's introduction includes thorough and insightful treatment of historiography of irregular in Civil War, beginning with often fanciful and hero-worshipping biographies of postwar era, then moving on to more recent military and social analyses of causes and effects of guerrilla activities in South. The author, career Army officer currently serving as strategic planner and policy analyst at Pentagon, focuses on Upper South-Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia-since it was scene of both large-scale conventional campaigning and extensive irregular activity, offering an opportunity to reflect on partisan as bona fide part of overall Confederate strategy. Arkansas was the scene of Confederate government's only planned and executed guerrilla conflict, result of Gen. Thomas Hindman's General Order 17 (included in appendix), which was originally intended as temporary measure (p. 25). Mackey follows degeneration of guerrilla conflict from its initial stage when Hindman's of ten were formed to attack and harass Union troops until 1864, when they habitually preyed on civilian population and steadfastly avoided contact with Union army (p. 43). By war's end, Confederacy's guerrilla war in Arkansas . . . grew into conflict of its own, pitting guerrilla against organized armies of both sides (p. 49). The horrors perpetrated by bushwhackers led Federal leaders to seek innovative solutions to guerrilla menace. The Mississippi Marine Brigade was formed to counter attacks along Mississippi, a revolutionary concept that failed because of problems with discipline and command (p. 55). Maj. Gen. Frederick Steele, often scorned by his troops as being soft on rebels, undercut guerrilla effectiveness by commuting death sentences of bushwhackers to hard labor, which prevented captured guerrillas from becoming martyrs to cause (p. 61). The real genius of Union Arkansas was Col. Marcus LaRue Harrison, whose 1st Arkansas Cavalry, the most successful of Union counterguerrilla units, relentlessly hunted bushwhackers throughout northern Arkansas (p. 62). Harrison established fortified farm colonies that provided both armed civilians to guard colonies-freeing unionist troopers to constantly patrol region-and way stations and supply caches for roaming Federal patrols. By 1865, surviving partisan bands were eager to surrender. Mackey focuses on activities of John Singleton Mosby in Virginia to illustrate partisan warfare, second aspect of irregular triad. Unlike savage bands in Arkansas, Mosby's 43rd Virginia Cavalry Battalion was led by talented and charismatic officer who treated his enemies fairly and limited looting of civilian targets. Beginning with fifteen hand-picked troopers, Mosby formed force of disciplined and motivated elite cavalrymen with specialized mission of partisan warfare (p. …

"A Hard Little Fight": The Battle of Fitzhugh's Woods, April 1, 1864

THOUGH A LARGELY UNHERALDED ENGAGEMENT, battle of Fitzhugh's Woods suggests much about course Civil War had taken in northern Arkansas by early 1864. Following capture of Little Rock by Union forces under Maj. Gen. Frederick Steele in September 1863, city's Confederate defenders were sent streaming toward southwest Arkansas. The loss of Little Rock without much of a fight had been a disaster for morale of Confederates, particularly troops from Arkansas. [I]t produced intense indignation, resulting in great demoralization, and men in great numbers abandoned their colors and returned home, Brig. Gen. Dandridge McRae wrote years later. Three of my regiments had been recruited in north Arkansas, and from above cause, my loss was great, much greater than it would have been had a battle been fought.1 McRae himself had been in a kind of military limbo after battle of Helena on July 4, 1 863, because Lt. Gen. Theophilus Holmes had selected him as a scapegoat for that disastrous Confederate defeat. McRae had participated in capture of Battery C at Helena before being ordered to assist those attacking adjacent Battery D. Holmes reported that McRae utterly failed to render slightest aid, making no attempt to assault hill, an accusation that McRae said had done both my brigade and myself gross injustice. Though McRae retained command of his brigade during subsequent Little Rock campaign, he had been relieved by October 7, 1863. Maj. Gen. Sterling Price, who had defended McRae's actions at Helena, gave displaced brigadier command ofthat part of Arkansas lying between White and Mississippi Rivers. Aided by forty-six commissioned officers left without commands by flood of Confederate desertions, McRae went to northeast Arkansas with orders to and return to their commands all absentees found in that section. By October 26, Union officers reported that McRae has his headquarters at Jacksonport, and is conscripting strongly.2 McRae's new area of command was infested, as was much of rest of state, with bands of irregular cavalrymen. Following Confederate defeat at Pea Ridge in 1862 and abandonment of Arkansas by most organized Confederate forces, Maj. Gen. Thomas Hindman organized guerrilla units to combat Union troops while he cobbled together a conventional army. By early 1863, many of these bands had begun to display marauding tendencies that would plague Arkansas for duration of war. Confederate orders that irregular companies disband and their members join infantry units were largely ignored. In addition, many who had deserted after battle of Helena and fall of Little Rock chose to join irregular companies that operated in regions closer to their families. While many of irregular commands worked in close cooperation with Confederate leadership, others were little more than organized brigands. Historian Robert Mackey calls northern half of state the most guerrilla-infested region of Arkansas for last two years of war, as groups from Missouri, Indian Territory, Louisiana and Texas, as well as homegrown irregulars, preyed on local population for survival.3 McRae's mission summed up Confederate situation north of Arkansas River. He not only sought to collect some of many Rebel deserters in region but also use irregular companies to attack isolated Union outposts at places like Jacksonport. By November 1863, Lt. T. G. Black of 3rd Missouri Cavalry (U.S.), which then occupied Jacksonport, reported that McRae had men in his squads, with a roll of 1,500 more that are scattered through country, dodging him. Black complained that annoy my pickets almost every night. I send out a scout every day, but find it very difficult to catch them, as they have entire country picketed, and there are so many hiding places. About only chance to capture them would be to send force enough to make a regular 'wolf-drive. …