Northern European Areas Research Articles

‘WHY THEY CAME’; THE COLONIZATION OF THE COAST OF WESTERN SWEDEN AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT AT THE END OF THE LAST GLACIATION

Summary. In this paper we will bring into view new aspects of Late Palaeolithic and early Mesolithic research on the west coast of Sweden. In doing so, we make use of oceanography and tidal modelling, in conjunction with basic research in the fields of archaeology and palynology. The focus of research concerns the Hensbacka culture group in central Bohuslän, a group of hunter‐gatherers which visited the area between c.10,300–9300 bp (10,200/10,000–8500 cal BC). Recent investigations indicate that the frequency of Hensbacka sites in the archipelago of central Bohuslän, which at that time had a total land area of c.500 sq km, might well represent the highest site density area in northern Europe during a c.1000‐year period of time at the close of the Late Glacial and beginning of the early Post Glacial. In the pages that follow, we will discuss how, and why, this ‘seasonal colonization’ was possible.

Immigration

The paper argues that the immigration of single European males to the Cape throughout the Dutch period has been overlooked in the debate about the expansion of the frontier. The presence of these immigrants affected the demography of the settlement and accounts for the consistently high free male sex ratio at the Cape. The paper challenges the mythology of large self-perpetuating pre-1707 settler families using up available land and pushing the frontier forward. It also draws attention to the fact that the Dutch East India Company, while not actively supporting immigration, was favorably disposed to able-bodied single men in their service taking up residence at the Cape, as thousands of successful applications for burgher status indicate. These immigrants, drawn from economically depressed urban areas of northern Europe, cautiously entered the settler economy first as knechts, bywoners, hunters, traders, and graziers, before ultimately acquiring their own farms. It was they, who as early as 1702, made contact with the Xhosa. Moreover, they vied with Cape-born men for marital partners. Local women, both slave and free, showed a preference for the newcomers, demonstrating a tendency to exogamy not appreciated in the persistent mythology of a closed settler community, or a herrenvolk democracy.

Boarded out by auction: poor children and their families in nineteenth-century northern Sweden

Boarding out and fostering poor children was a favoured method of poor relief in many rural areas in northern Europe. This article discusses children who were boarded out to foster-parents by public auction in a rural parish in northern nineteenth-century Sweden. Poverty was the main reason why children were boarded out, frequently associated with loss of parents and difficulties in providing for a large household. It is suggested that the Swedish system of boarding out poor children must be understood in the context of a welfare system where cost efficiency was important. The auction method was used in spite of the risks involved because it was considered to be the best way to provide poor children with food, clothes, shelter and care, while keeping the compensation to the foster-parents at a reasonably low level.

Tillage techniques to reactivate aeolian erosion on inland drift-sand

The inland drift-sand areas in northern Europe are characterised by a rapid decline in both aeolian activity and areal size. Many former drift-sand surfaces have become immobilised by natural or man-induced processes, such as conversion into forest or other terrain for agricultural, economic or societal purposes. The sharp reduction of these areas automatically implies the disappearance in Western Europe of a unique landscape with a high natural and cultural-historic value. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how drift-sand areas can be preserved, how the balance between the active areas and those colonised with drift-sand vegetation can be kept under control, and how introducing techniques that reactivate, or benefit, the aeolian processes can counteract irreversible immobilisation by subsequent colonisation. Four such techniques (rotary cultivator, beach sand cleaner, disk harrow and excavator) were evaluated during an 8-month experiment on drift-sand stabilised by grey hair grass and algae crusts at Kootwijkerzand, The Netherlands. The effect of the techniques was measured using five key-parameters: the raising and lowering of the surface due to aeolian activity, the horizontal sediment transport flux, the vertical sediment accumulation flux, changes in the grain size of the top layer due to aeolian processes, and changes in the organic matter content of the topsoil. The effect of each technique on soil compaction, surface roughness and the amount of plant residue left on the field is also discussed. The highest aeolian activity (horizontal and vertical flux, surface lowering) was observed on test fields treated with the beach sand cleaner and the rotary cultivator. The changes in grain size and organic matter content of the top layer were also highest in these fields. Of the four techniques tested, the beach sand cleaner and the rotary cultivator are thus the most recommendable methods to reactivate drift-sand stabilised by grey hair grass and algae crusts. The disk harrow and the excavator may also lead to a reactivation, but they are less effective and therefore less recommendable.

Conservation of Northern European plant diversity: the correspondence with soil pH

Effective biodiversity conservation requires an analysis of the existing reserve system. In temperate and boreal regions, plant diversity has a strong positive association with soil pH. Consequently, in order to protect plant diversity effectively, a relatively large proportion of protected areas should be on high pH soils. Since biodiversity data are never complete for all taxa, biodiversity indicators, e.g., threatened species, should be used. We studied soil pH distributions in protected areas in Northern Europe and tested whether soil pH requirement differs between threatened and non-threatened bryophyte and vascular plant species. As result, the proportion of high pH soils in protected areas was significantly greater than the proportion of these soils in general. This ensures that a large regional pool of plant species preferring high pH soils is relatively well protected. Threatened and non-threatened species in Northern Europe did not differ in their soil pH requirements, but threatened species required a narrower soil pH range than non-threatened species. Consequently, threatened species diversity can be used for indicating overall plant diversity.

Lithium isotope geochemistry and origin of Canadian shield brines.

Hypersaline calcium/chloride shield brines are ubiquitous in Canada and areas of northern Europe. The major questions relating to these fluids are the origin of the solutes and the concentration mechanism that led to their extreme salinity. Many chemical and isotopic tracers are used to solve these questions. For example, lithium isotope systematics have been used recently to support a marine origin for the Yellowknife shield brine (Northwest Territories). While having important chemical similarities to the Yellowknife brine, shield brines from the Sudbury/Elliot Lake (Ontario) and Thompson/Snow Lake (Manitoba) regions, which are the focus of this study, exhibit contrasting lithium behavior. Brine from the Sudbury Victor mine has lithium concentrations that closely follow the sea water lithium-bromine concentration trajectory, as well as delta6Li values of approximately -28/1000. This indicates that the lithium in this brine is predominantly marine in origin with a relatively minor component of crustal lithium leached from the host rocks. In contrast, the Thompson/Snow Lake brine has anomalously low lithium concentrations, indicating that it has largely been removed from solution by alteration minerals. Furthermore, brine and nonbrine mine waters at the Thompson mine have large delta6Li variations of approximately 30/1000, which primarily reflects mixing between deep brine with delta6Li of -35 +/- 2/1000 and near surface mine water that has derived higher delta6Li values through interactions with their host rocks. The contrary behavior of lithium in these two brines shows that, in systems where it has behaved conservatively, lithium isotopes can distinguish brines derived from marine sources.

Factors affecting different spatial distribution of wintering Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula and Goldeneye Bucephala clangula in the western part of the Gulf of Gdańsk (Poland)

Tufted Duck and Goldeneye wintering in the western part of the Gulf of Gdańsk (Poland) were counted in January 1988—1999. In all seasons, the concentrations of the two species were observed in different places. Tufted Ducks gathered in areas well protected against waves and winds (in harbours, near breakwaters, in the river mouths). Goldeneyes preferred areas abundant in food and with shallow water. This distribution difference of the species could be affected by their behaviour. Tufted Duck searched quiet resting places by day when Goldeneye mainly foraged in the same time. During all seasons, adult male ratio of both species was similar. Adult males were the most numerous group during severe winters (with ice-cover in part of the study area). This could be a result of arrival of birds from frozen wintering areas in northern Europe (predominance of males) and of abandonment of the study area by females and young birds, which are less resistant to bad conditions. In mild winters, individuals in female plumage predominated in the majority of the coastal sectors.

Total sulphur in leaves of several plant species from nine catchments within a 1 500 000 km 2 area in northern Europe: local vs. regional variability

Leaves of up to eleven different plant species (terrestrial moss: Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi ; blueberry: Vaccinium myrtillus and Vaccinium uliginosum ; cowberry: Vaccinium vitis-idaea ; crowberry: Empetrum nigrum ; birch: Betula pubescens and Betula nana ; willow: Salix spp.; pine: Pinus sylvestris ; and spruce: Picea abies ) have been collected from up to nine catchments (size 14–50 km 2 ) spread over a 1 500 000 km 2 area in northern Europe and analysed for ‘total’ (digestion by 16M HNO 3 ) sulphur concentrations. Soil samples were taken of the O- and C-horizon at each plant sample site. The soil samples were analysed for ‘total’ (digestion by 16M HNO 3 for O-horizon, aqua regia for C-horizon) and ‘soluble’ (ammonium acetate extraction buffered at pH 4.5, O-horizon only) S concentrations. The overall median S concentration for all plants is 1290 mg kg −1 . The median S concentration is 965 mg kg −1 in moss; 990 mg kg −1 in conifers; 1490 mg kg −1 in shrubs; and 1900 mg kg −1 in deciduous trees. Total S concentrations in the leaves of the 11 plant species are very different within and between the catchments. Compared to the total regional variance, the local variance within just one catchment is very high. One of the nine catchments was located directly adjacent (5–10 km S) to the nickel smelter and refinery at Monchegorsk, Kola Peninsula, Russia, one of the largest SO 2 (and metal) emitters in Europe. Only spruce needles returned significantly higher S concentrations (by a factor of 2) in all samples collected near Monchegorsk. Otherwise pollution is reflected in a higher variance rather than in high concentrations. Willow leaves show by far the highest total S concentrations. They are, however, not related to pollution but were observed in the catchment nearest to the coast of the Barents Sea. The measured S concentrations in the leaves do not correlate well either with ‘available’ or total S in the soils. Several different pathways must be considered for leaf uptake of S in all plants. The important role of S as a major plant nutrient and the consequently high background concentrations and variations prohibit the use of leaves as reliable indicators of SO 2 pollution levels in air. It is not possible to establish general ‘background’ S concentrations in plant leaves for a very large area.

Origin and migration of wild and escaped farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in oceanic areas north of the Faroe Islands

We examined the distribution, migration and origin of wild and escaped farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the northeast Atlantic ocean north of the Faroe Islands based on individual tagging of salmon in this area. Recoveries of wild salmon were reported from homewaters in nine north Atlantic countries, and in a number of different rivers throughout the distribution range of Atlantic salmon. Most tags were recovered in Norway, but relatively large numbers of returns were observed in Scotland and Ireland as well. No fish were recaptured at Faroes. Fish tagged in the autumn tended to return to areas closer to the tagging site than fish tagged in the winter. This strongly suggests that salmon originating from most areas of the distribution range are at some life stage present in this area, but in variable proportions at different times. Most of the salmon returned home to spawn the next autumn, and the fish that stayed for another year originated from northern areas of Europe. All recoveries of farmed salmon were in Norway except one on the west coast of Sweden, suggesting that they could have escaped mainly from Norwegian fish farms. Assessment of the proportion of wild salmon from different countries present north of the Faroe Islands revealed that 40% of the fish were of Norwegian origin, and Scotland and Russia accounted for about 20% each. Four tags of wild fish were reported from Canada, all in the same year they were tagged. This demonstrates that adult Atlantic salmon can cross the north Atlantic ocean in less than 6 months.

Paludification and forest retreat in northern oceanic environments.

Examination of temperature variations over the past century for Europe and the Arctic from northern Norway to Siberia suggests that variations in the North Atlantic Oscillation are associated with an increase in oceanicity in certain maritime regions. A southward depression of the tree line in favour of wet heaths, bogs and wetland tundra communities is also observed in northern oceanic environments. The physiological basis for this change in ecological succession from forest to bog is discussed in relation to the long-term effects of flooding on tree survival. The heightened values currently detected in the North Atlantic Oscillation Index, together with rising winter temperatures, and increased rainfall in many areas in northern Europe, presents an increasing risk of paludification with adverse consequences for forest regeneration, particularly in areas with oceanic climates. Climatic warming in oceanic areas may increase the area covered by bogs and, contrary to general expectations, lead to a retreat rather than an advance in the northern limit of the boreal forest. High water-table levels are not automatically detrimental to forest survival as can be seen in swamp, bottom land and mangrove forests. Consequently, the inhibitory effects of flooding on tree survival and regeneration in northern regions should not be uncritically accepted as merely due to high water levels. Evidence is discussed which suggests that physiological and ecological factors may interact to inhibit forest regeneration in habitats where there is a risk of prolonged winter-flooding combined with warmer winters and cool moist summers.

Effects of a cold treatment of the root system on white clover( Trifolium repensL.) morphogenesis and nitrogen reserve accumulation

The ability of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) to undergo cold acclimation is an important determinant of its persistence in mixed swards since growth rate at low temperatures sustains higher clover contents at the start of spring. During a re-growth period following defoliation, a gradual exposure of the root system (cv. Grasslands Huia) led to some physiological and morphological changes of cold-adaptive significance, similar to those developed by clover ecotypes originating in northern areas of Europe. Thus, cold exposure of the root system resulted in small-leaved prostrate forms of white clover after one month of re-growth. Similarly, cold exposure increased the ability of plants to store nitrogen since the application of low temperatures to the root system enhanced soluble protein accumulation in roots and in stolons. More specifically, cold exposure of the roots induced gene expression of a vegetative storage protein (17.3 kDa VSP) in both organs. These results demonstrate that the root system of clover plants should be a site of perception of the low-temperature stimulus, and gave rise to the question of the transduction of the cold signal from the roots to the aerial parts. On the basis of this study and taking into account molecular aspects concerning the clover VSP, it is suggested that this protein could participate in cold acclimation in addition to its role in nitrogen storage.

Lapp Cairns as a Source on Metal Period Settlement in the Inland Regions of Finland 1

This article presents an overview of the history of research of the so-called Lapp cairns. On the basis of the limited find material from these cairns, they are assumed to be from the archaeologically poor Iron Age period of the Finnish inland regions. The situation is similar throughout large wilderness areas in northern Europe, and in Norway it has sometimes been called the "findless period" ( den funntomme perioden ). Six so-called Lapp cairns excavated in central Finland in the 1980s and 1990s are discussed in detail. Three of the cairns contained sufficient amounts of burnt bone for testing the new AMS dating method of burnt bone based on crystalline carbonate on Finnish material. As far as is known, these are the first datings of burnt bone in the Finnish material. The oldest Lapp cairn, cairn no. 1 at Pyykkisaari in Viitasaari, is from the end of the Stone Age, and the other two are from the Early Metal Period. This article briefly discusses problems related to defining Lapp cairns, their age and function. The early dating of the Lapp cairns gives new topicality to the prevailing conception that the Lapp cairns resulted from the influence of the cairns of the coastal Bronze Age. The burnt bone from the oldest cairn included the remains of seal. It is possible that these fragments of bone represent relict ringed seal that lived in Lake Keitele in the past.

Threats and Threat Scenarios in the North during the Cold War

To understand the cold war it is necessary to focus on geopolitics, geostrategy and varying threat scenarios. But it was also a conflict of ideology, in which both parties, with the USA and the Soviet Union at the front, were seeking to promote their own social constructions, based on their respective ideologies, and strengthen their political and military positions. In addition, mentalities were created that were characterized by fear, threats and enemy images, which to some extent were manifestations of the way in which the contending parties viewed themselves as well as their enemy. The present article deals with some aspects of the cold war threat scenarios that relate to the northern areas of Europe in general, and to North Norway in particular. First, it briefly discusses the concepts of "geopolitics" and "threat scenario" and makes an attempt to establish a kind of geopolitical status for the period in question. Second, it discusses "northern" threat images in the cold war, from an international perspective as well as from a national and local point of view. In dealing with the local perspective, the article also looks into the question of whether the cold war was experienced very differently, according to people's regional belonging or their social, political and professional backgrounds.

Glacial-induced altitudinal migrations in Armeria (Plumbaginaceae) inferred from patterns of chloroplast DNA haplotype sharing.

In contrast to northern European areas where large-scale migrations occurred to recolonize territories after glacial periods, species in southern regions survived and diverged without large geographical displacements. As a result of the importance of orography in much of the southern areas, such displacements must have involved populations ascending or descending mountains. The present study provides support for glacial-induced altitudinal migrations from chloroplast phylogeographic patterns in Armeria (Plumbaginaceae) in southeast Spain. One hundred and five sequences of the trnL-F spacer were obtained from seven species. Fifteen different haplotypes were recognized, their genealogy was inferred, and associations with geography were explored using nested clade analysis. Seven instances were detected in which the same haplotype is shared by two or three species within a particular massif. In all the cases, at least one of the species involved displayed different haplotypes in other areas; in most, the haplotype shared is predominant either in one of the species involved or in the massif. These patterns of haplotype sharing strongly suggest horizontal transfer between species. In one of the massifs (Sierra Nevada) the three species involved in haplotype sharing (A. splendens, A. filicaulis ssp. nevadensis, A. villosa ssp. bernisii) occur at markedly different altitudinal belts. It is argued that altitudinal migrations within the contraction-expansion model provide the best explanation for the current pattern, and that at least in one case it resulted in the formation of a new hybrid taxon, A. filicaulis ssp. nevadensis.

Towards a European tephrochronological framework for Termination 1 and the Early Holocene.

The record of deposition of tephras in Europe and the North Atlantic during the period 18.5-8.0 (14)C ka BP (the Last Termination and Early Holocene) is reviewed. Altogether, 34 tephras originating from four main volcanic provinces (Iceland, the Eifel district, the Massif Central and Italy) have been identified so far in geological sequences spanning this time-interval. Most of the records have been based, until very recently, on observations of visible layers of tephras. Here, we report on the potential for extending the areas over which some of the tephras can be traced by the search for layers of micro-tephra, which are not visible to the naked eye, and on the use of geochemical methods to correlate them with known tephra horizons. This approach has greatly extended the area in Northern Europe over which the Vedde Ash can be traced. The same potential exists in southern Europe, which is demonstrated for the first time by the discovery of a distinct layer of micro-tephra of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff in a site in the Northern Apennines in Italy, far to the north of the occurrences of visible records of this tephra. The paper closes by considering the potential for developing a robust European tephrostratigraphy to underpin the chronology of records of the Last Termination and Early Holocene, thereby promoting a better understanding of the nature, timing and environmental effects of the abrupt climatic changes that characterized this period.

Haemogregarines of the genus Hepatozoon (Apicomplexa: Adeleina) in rodents from northern Europe.

We studied the prevalence and distribution of Hepatozoon infections in small rodents from Finland and other areas in northern Europe. Hepatozoon infections were more common in voles (Arvicolinae) than mice (Murinae) and more prevalent in voles of the genus Clethrionomys than in voles of the genus Microtus. Transmission electron microscopical examination of Hepatozoon erhardovae Krampitz, 1964 from bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus (Schreber) showed that intracellular lung meronts were located in alveolar septa. Meronts consisted of varying numbers of merozoites packed with amylopectin vacuoles inside electron-lucent parasitophorous vacuole. The size of the meronts was approximately 19 x 14 microm. Monozoic or dizoic cysts were frequent findings in the lung alveoles; the size of cysts was approximately 10 x 6 microm. Gametocytes were found inside eosinophilic granulocytes in the capillaries of lung tissue. Ultrastructurally, micronemes, microtubules, mitochondria, nuclei and lipid droplets were visible.

Comparison of the element composition in several plant species and their substrate from a 1 500 000-km 2 area in Northern Europe

Leaves of 9 different plant species (terrestrial moss represented by: Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi; and 7 species of vascular plants: blueberry, Vaccinium myrtillus; cowberry, Vaccinium vitis-idaea; crowberry, Empetrum nigrum; birch, Betula pubescens; willow, Salix spp.; pine, Pinus sylvestris and spruce, Picea abies) have been collected from up to 9 catchments (size 14–50 km 2) spread over a 1 500 000 km 2 area in Northern Europe. Soil samples were taken of the O-horizon and of the C-horizon at each plant sample site. All samples were analysed for 38 elements (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, S, Sb, Sc, Se, Si, Sn, Sr, Th, Tl, U, V, Y, Zn and Zr) by ICP-MS, ICP-AES or CV-AAS (for Hg-analysis) techniques. The concentrations of some elements vary significantly between different plants (e.g. Cd, V, Co, Pb, Ba and Y). Other elements show surprisingly similar levels in all plants (e.g. Rb, S, Cu, K, Ca, P and Mg). Each group of plants (moss, shrubs, deciduous and conifers) shows a common behaviour for some elements. Each plant accumulates or excludes some selected elements. Compared to the C-horizon, a number of elements (S, K, B, Ca, P and Mn) are clearly enriched in plants. Elements showing very low plant/C-horizon ratios (e.g. Zr, Th, U, Y, Fe, Li and Al) can be used as an indicator of minerogenic dust. The plant/O-horizon and O-horizon/C-horizon ratios show that some elements are accumulated in the O-horizon (e.g. Pb, Bi, As, Ag, Sb). Airborne organic material attached to the leaves can thus, result in high values of these elements without any pollution source.

Influence of extreme pollution on the inorganic chemical composition of some plants

Leaves of nine different plant species (terrestrial moss: Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi, blueberry: Vaccinium myrtillus, cowberry: Vaccinium vitis-idaea, crowberry: Empetrum nigrum, birch: Betula pubescens, willow: Salix spp., pine: Pinus sylvestris, and spruce: Picea abies) have been collected from up to nine catchments (size 14–50 km 2) spread over a 1,500,000 km 2 area in northern Europe. Additional soil samples were taken from the O-horizon and the C-horizon at each plant sample site. All samples were analysed for 38 elements (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, S, Sb, Sc, Se, Si, Sn, Sr, Th, Tl, U, V, Y, Zn, and Zr) by ICP-MS, ICP-AES or CV-AAS (Hg) techniques. One of the 9 catchments was located directly adjacent (5–10 km S) to the nickel smelter and refinery at Monchegorsk, Kola Peninsula, Russia. The high levels of pollution at this site are reflected in the chemical composition of all plant leaves. However, it appears that each plant enriches (or excludes) different elements. Elements emitted at trace levels, such as Ag, As and Bi, are relatively much more enriched in most plants than the major pollutants Ni, Cu and Co. The very high levels of SO 2 emissions are generally not reflected by increases in plant total S-content. Several important macro- (P) and micro-nutrients (Mn, Mg, and Zn) are depleted in most plant leaves collected near Monchegorsk.

Factors determining the robustness of AOT40 and other ozone exposure indices

The robustness problem is considered for mathematical indices that describe the adverse effects of vegetation exposure to ozone. It is shown that some of them may demonstrate infinitely high sensitivity of the exposure estimate to small variations of ozone concentrations or internal parameters of specific functional. In particular, for the accumulated exposure over a threshold of 40 ppb (AOT40) index such conditions are not extraordinary, but rather describe quite often situations in remote areas in Northern Europe. Taking into account inevitable uncertainties in both calculated and observed ozone concentrations, a high sensitivity of ozone impact indices results in an instability of the exposure estimates and creates problems in their use. Theoretical consideration of the problem enabled to formulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the limited sensitivity of a time-integrating index. An example of a modified AOT formulation fulfilling the obtained criteria and hence not experiencing the sensitivity problem is considered.

Critical remarks on the use of terrestrial moss ( Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) for monitoring of airborne pollution

Duplicate samples of the two terrestrial moss species Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi, which are widely used to monitor airborne heavy metal pollution, have been collected from eight catchments spread over a 1,500,000 km 2 area in northern Europe. These were analysed for a total of 38 elements by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry and cold vapour-atomic absorption spectometry techniques. Results show that the moss species can be combined without interspecies calibration for regional mapping purposes. For the majority of elements the observed within-catchment variation is large — big composite samples over a large area should thus be collected when moss is to be used for monitoring purposes. For the majority of elements the input of dust governs moss chemistry. For a reliable ‘contamination’ signal over a sizeable area a major source is needed. Some elements show a dependence on climate/vegetation zone. In coastal areas the input of marine aerosols will alter the chemical signal obtained from moss samples.