Northern Anchovy Research Articles

Development of free neuromasts in Engraulis ringens and Strangomera bentincki (Teleostei, Clupeiformes) early larvae

Neuromast morphology and distribution are characterized during early ontogeny of anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) and common sardine (Strangomera bentincki). Although both species share morphological features, they show several differences during their early ontogeny, such as size at hatching and yolk absorption. Larvae were obtained from incubation of planktonic eggs (at 12°C), collected during the spawning season 2001 (August-September) at Coliumo Bay. The neuromasts were observed from hatching to 25 days, and the pattern of neuromast appearance, in newly hatched larva, until yolk absorption, was determined using Janus Green staining and scanning electronic microscope. Results showed a similar pattern of neuromast development in both species. At hatching, two pairs of neuromasts were observed in the cephalic area and 8-9 in the rest of the body, which increased to 19 pairs and to 30-39 pairs at a larval size of 11 mm, respectively. On the average, 12 hair cells per neuromast were counted, with little variation among neuromasts. The polarity of these hair cells was closest to multiple polarity. Neuromast positioning for both species, anchoveta and common sardine larvae, are similar to those of Engraulis mordax and Clupea harengus, respectively. The similar development pattern of these species seems to be related to similar functional constraints and close taxonomic affinity.

Changes in California Chinook salmon diet over the past 50 years: relevance to the recent population crash

MEPS Marine Ecology Progress Series Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsTheme Sections MEPS 498:249-261 (2014) - DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10608 Changes in California Chinook salmon diet over the past 50 years: relevance to the recent population crash Julie A. Thayer1,*, John C. Field2, William J. Sydeman1 1Farallon Institute for Advanced Ecosystem Research, 101 H Street, Suite Q, Petaluma, California 94952, USA 2NOAA/NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Fisheries Ecology Division, 110 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA *Corresponding author: jthayer@faralloninstitute.org ABSTRACT: Salmon are affected by variation in ocean productivity; thus, improved understanding of mechanisms behind variability in ocean survival should help management of these ecologically and economically important populations. Based on a cooperative fisheries research program, we compared central California Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha adult food habits from spring and summer in the mid-2000s with historical records from 1955 and the 1980s. Diet diversity decreased through time, and was particularly low in May and June of the 2000s. Previously important prey, including juvenile rockfish Sebastes spp., krill Euphausiidae, Pacific herring Clupea pallesi and market squid Doryteuthis opalsecens, declined or disappeared from the diet, while Pacific sardine Sardinops sagax became very important prey in the 2000s; anchovy Engraulis mordax remained important throughout the study. Diet composition was correlated with regional mid-water trawls of prey abundance and also with local sea surface temperature (SST). Diet composition was related to the Sacramento Index of fall-run Chinook ocean abundance with a lag of 1 or 2 yr, and reflected the importance of prey availability during the second ocean year and smolt ocean-entry period, respectively. Spring is peak ocean entry for fall-run Chinook smolts, so declining prey diversity (specifically in May and June in the mid-2000s) may be related to recent population crashes. Seasonally, winter and fall diet data further demonstrated the significance of temporal variation in specific prey. This study highlights the importance of marine predator–prey interactions at an appropriate temporal resolution for understanding salmonid population dynamics. KEY WORDS: Chinook salmon · Diet diversity · Diet composition · Seasonal variation · Decadal variation · Prey availability · SST Full text in pdf format Supplementary material PreviousNextCite this article as: Thayer JA, Field JC, Sydeman WJ (2014) Changes in California Chinook salmon diet over the past 50 years: relevance to the recent population crash. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 498:249-261. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10608 Export citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in MEPS Vol. 498. Online publication date: February 17, 2014 Print ISSN: 0171-8630; Online ISSN: 1616-1599 Copyright © 2014 Inter-Research.

Marine bird aggregations associated with the tidally-driven plume and plume fronts of the Columbia River

Freshwater discharge from large rivers into the coastal ocean creates tidally-driven frontal systems known to enhance mixing, primary production, and secondary production. Many authors suggest that tidal plume fronts increase energy flow to fish-eating predators by attracting planktivorous fishes to feed on plankton aggregated by the fronts. However, few studies of plume fronts directly examine piscivorous predator response to plume fronts. Our work examined densities of piscivorous seabirds relative to the plume region and plume fronts of the Columbia River, USA. Common murres (Uria aalge) and sooty shearwaters (Puffinus griseus) composed 83% of all birds detected on mesoscale surveys of the Washington and Oregon coasts (June 2003–2006), and 91.3% of all birds detected on fine scale surveys of the plume region less than 40km from the river mouth (May 2003 and 2006). Mesoscale comparisons showed consistently more predators in the central plume area compared to the surrounding marine area (murres: 10.1–21.5 vs. 3.4–8.2birdskm−2; shearwaters: 24.2–75.1 vs. 11.8–25.9birdskm−2). Fine scale comparisons showed that murre density in 2003 and shearwater density in both 2003 and 2006 were significantly elevated in the tidal plume region composed of the most recently discharged river water. Murres tended to be more abundant on the north face of the plume. In May 2003, more murres and shearwaters were found within 3km of the front on any given transect, although maximum bird density was not necessarily found in the same location as the front itself. Predator density on a given transect was not correlated with frontal strength in either year. The high bird densities we observed associated with the tidal plume demonstrate that the turbid Columbia River plume does not necessarily provide fish with refuge from visual predators. Bird predation in the plume region may therefore impact early marine survival of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), which must migrate through the tidal plume and plume front to enter the ocean. Because murres and shearwaters eat primarily planktivorous fish such as the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), aggregation of these birds in the plume supports the hypothesis that it is the plume region as a whole, and not just the plume fronts, which enhances trophic transfer to piscivorous predators via planktivorous fishes.

Seabird diets provide early warning of sardine fishery declines in the Gulf of California

Small pelagic fisheries show wide fluctuations, generally attributed to oceanographic anomalies. Most data on these fisheries come from landings, often reporting sustained catches-per-unit-effort (CPUEs) until a decline occurs. Fishery-independent data are important as management tools. In this study we show that the proportions of Pacific Sardine and Northern Anchovy in the diet of three seabird species (California Brown Pelicans, Heermann's Gulls, and Elegant Terns) nesting in spring in the Gulf of California show significant relationships with CPUEs during the following season in gulls and terns, or during the same season in pelicans. As sardine availability for seabirds declines, CPUEs remain high until the fishery falls, one or two seasons later. A declining proportion of sardines in the seabirds' diet, combined with the status of the Pacific warm-phase anomaly (El Niño), give a reliable forecast of diminishing CPUEs and signals the need to reduce fishing efforts in the ensuing season.

Fish assemblages in theSouthernCaliforniaCurrent: relationships with climate, 1951–2008

AbstractWe examined the dominant patterns of variability in the fish fauna of the southernCaliforniaCurrent based on a principal component (PC) analysis of theCaliforniaCooperativeOceanicFisheriesInvestigations ichthyoplankton data set, 1951–2008. Eighty‐six taxa were analyzed, including all ecologically dominant fish species, both exploited and unexploited. The first threePCs accounted for 20.5, 12.4 and 6.8% of the variance of the data, respectively (total: 39.7%). Each was dominated by taxa from particular adult or larval habitats.PC1 predominantly represented the coherent response of 24 mesopelagic taxa from 10 families and was most highly correlated with long‐term trends in midwater oxygen levels.PC2 was dominated by six of the seven most abundant ichthyoplankton taxa in the region, predominantlyCaliforniaCurrent endemics including key pelagic species (northern anchovy,Pacific sardine andPacific hake), rockfishes (genusSebastes) and two midwater taxa. It was correlated primarily with sea surface temperature and exhibited a significant declining trend.PC3 was dominated by coastal and reef‐associated fishes with predominantly southerly affinities. It was positively correlated with sea surface temperature and sea level height, a proxy for diminished flow of theCaliforniaCurrent. The taxa dominatingPCs 2 and 3 mostly spatially co‐occur as ichthyoplankton. These results suggest that fish assemblages in theCaliforniaCurrent are predominantly influenced by environmental forcing of their ocean habitats as adults or larvae, or both.

Abundance, Composition and Sinking Rates of Fish Fecal Pellets in the Santa Barbara Channel

Rapidly sinking fecal pellets are an important component of the vertical flux of particulate organic matter (POM) from the surface to the ocean's interior; however, few studies have examined the role fish play in this export. We determined abundance, size, prey composition, particulate organic carbon/nitrogen (POC/PON), and sinking rates of fecal pellets produced by a forage fish, likely the northern anchovy, in the Santa Barbara Channel. Pellet abundance ranged from 0.1–5.9 pellets m−3. POC and PON contents averaged 21.7 µg C pellet−1 and 2.7 µg N pellet−1. The sinking rate averaged 787 m d−1; thus pellets produced at the surface would reach the benthos (~500 m) in <1 day. Estimated downward flux of fish fecal POC reached a maximum of 251 mg C m−2 d−1. This is equal to or exceeds previous measurements of sediment trap POM flux, and thus may transport significant amounts of repackaged surface material to depth.

Foraging ecology and movement patterns of jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) in the California Current System

From 2002 to 2010, the jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) has been regularly encountered in large numbers throughout the California Current System (CCS). This species, usually found in subtropical waters, could affect coastal pelagic ecosystems and fisheries as both predator and prey. Neither the abundance of jumbo squid nor the optimal ocean conditions in which they flourish are well known. To understand better the potential impacts of this species on both commercial fisheries and on food-web structure we collected nearly 900 specimens from waters of the CCS, covering over 20° of latitude, over a range of depths and seasons. We used demographic information (size, sex, and maturity state) and analyzed stomach contents using morphological and molecular methods to best understand the foraging ecology of this species in different habitats of the CCS. Squid were found to consume a broad array of prey. Prey in offshore waters generally reflected the forage base reported in previous studies (mainly mesopelagic fishes and squids), whereas in more coastal waters (shelf, shelf break and slope habitats) squid foraged on a much broader mix that included substantial numbers of coastal pelagic fishes (Pacific herring and northern anchovy, as well as osmerids and salmonids in northern waters) and groundfish (Pacific hake, several species of rockfish and flatfish). We propose a seasonal movement pattern, based on size and maturity distributions along with qualitative patterns of presence or absence, and discuss the relevance of both the movement and distribution of jumbo squid over space and time. We find that jumbo squid are a generalist predator, which feeds primarily on small, pelagic or mesopelagic micronekton but also on larger fishes when they are available. We also conclude that interactions with and potential impacts on ecosystems likely vary over space and time, in response to both seasonal movement patterns and highly variable year-to-year abundance of the squid themselves.

Dynamic height: A key variable for identifying the spawning habitat of small pelagic fishes

Small pelagic fishes off southern California exhibit interannual variations in the regions they occupy. An enhanced understanding of these fluctuations could improve fisheries management and predictions of fish's responses to climate change. We investigated dynamic height as a variable for identifying the spawning habitat of northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax), and jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus). During cruises between 1998 and 2004, dynamic height was calculated from temperature and salinity profiles, while fish egg concentration was measured with obliquely towed bongo nets and the Continuous, Underway Fish Egg Sampler. Dynamic height ranged between 68 and 108cm, with values increasing offshore. The greatest probability of encountering anchovy, sardine, and jack mackerel eggs occurred at dynamic heights of 79–83cm, 84–89cm, and 89–99cm, respectively. Four mechanisms were proposed to explain how dynamic height affects egg distribution: (1) dynamic height is a proxy for upper water column temperature and salinity, which are known to influence spawning habitat. (2) Low dynamic heights are indicative of coastal upwelling, which increases primary and secondary productivity. (3) Egg concentration is greater at dynamic heights coincident with geostrophic currents that transport larvae to favorable habitats. (4) Eddies delineated by dynamic height contours retain eggs in productive habitats. To evaluate these mechanisms, a generalized linear model was constructed using dynamic height, temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, zooplankton volume, geostrophic currents, and eddies as independent variables. Dynamic height explained more variance than any other variable in models of sardine and anchovy spawning habitat. Together temperature, salinity, and chlorophyll accounted for 80–95% of the dynamic height effect, emphasizing the importance of the first two mechanisms. However, dynamic height remained statistically significant in the models of anchovy and jack mackerel spawning habitat after considering the effects of all other variables. Dynamic height shows promise as an ecological indicator of spawning habitat, because it integrates the effects of multiple oceanic variables, can be remotely sensed, and is predicted by ocean circulation models.

Daily growth rate model of Japanese anchovy larvae Engraulis japonicus in Hiuchi-nada Sea, central Seto Inland Sea

In the present study, we developed a larval anchovy growth model in relation to sea temperature and food availability via food consumption and metabolic process terms, based on biological data from previous laboratory experiments and field surveys from 2003 to 2006 in Hiuchi-nada Sea, central part of Seto Inland Sea, Japan. To investigate when food shortage for larval anchovy and then recruitment failure occur in Hiuchi-nada Sea, anchovy food requirements were estimated by using the growth model, and we compared the food requirement with anchovy food availability. We applied an estimation method for growth model parameters, Hewett–Johnson p and Q 10, by minimizing the sum of squares of difference between mass-specific growth rates estimated by the models and those by otolith growth analysis. Parameter p was 0.86, slightly higher than typical values, and Q 10 was 2.11, close to the value used for the biological model of larval northern anchovy. Food shortage for anchovy larvae did not occur in Hiuchi-nada Sea, although it was indicated that low food availability led to a low reproductive success rate. The newly developed growth model is considered optimal at present and useful to link environmental conditions and larval growth.

Responses in growth rate of larval northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) to anomalous upwelling in the northern California Current

AbstractWe examined variability in growth rate during the larval stage of northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) in response to physical and biological environmental factors in 2005 and 2006. The onset of spring upwelling was anomalously delayed by 2–3 months until mid‐July in 2005; in contrast, spring upwelling in 2006 began as a normal year in the northern California Current. Larval and early juvenile E. mordax were collected in August, September, and October off the coast of Oregon and Washington. Hatch dates ranged from May to September, with peaks in June and August in 2005 and a peak in July in 2006, based on the number of otolith daily increments. Back‐calculated body length‐at‐age in the June 2005 hatch cohort was significantly smaller than in the August 2005 cohort, which had comparable growth to the July 2006 cohort. Standardized otolith daily increment widths as a proxy for seasonal variability in somatic growth rates in 2005 were negative until late July and then changed to positive with intensification of upwelling. The standardized increment width was a positive function of biomass of chlorophyll a concentration, and neritic cold‐water and oceanic subarctic copepod species sampled biweekly off Newport, Oregon. Our results suggest that delayed upwelling in 2005 resulted in low food availability and, consequently, reduced E. mordax larval growth rate in early summer, but once upwelling began in July, high food availability enhanced larval growth rate to that typical of a normal upwelling year (e.g., 2006) in the northern California Current.

Comparative feeding ecology of shortfin mako, blue and thresher sharks in the California Current

This study describes the feeding ecology of three pelagic shark species in the California Current: shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus); blue (Prionace glauca); and thresher (Alopias vulpinus) sharks. Stom- ach contents of sharks collected from 2002 to 2008 were identified to the lowest taxonomic level and analyzed using univariate and multivariate methods. Of 330 mako sharks sampled (53 to 248 cm fork length (FL)), 238 stomachs contained 42 prey taxa, with jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) and Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) representing the most important prey based on the geometric index of importance (GII). In addition, 158 blue sharks were sampled (76 to 248 cm FL) and 114 stomachs contained 38 prey taxa, with jumbo and Gonatus spp. squids representing the most important prey. Lastly, 225 thresher sharks were sam- pled (108 to 228 cm FL) and 157 stomachs contained 18 prey taxa with northern anchovy (Engraulis mor- dax) and Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax) identified as the most important prey. Overall, mako sharks had the most diverse diet based upon Simpson's diversity index (1/D) (8.43±1.16), feeding on many species of teleosts and cephalopods, followed by blue sharks (6.20±2.11) which consumed a wide range of prey (primarily cephalopods), while thresher sharks were most specialized (2.62±0.34), feeding primarily on coastal pelagic teleosts. Dietary overlap was lowest between blue and thresher sharks (Sorensen similarity index00.321 and Simplified Morisita Horn index0 0.006), and seasonal variability in diet was greatest for blue sharks (Simplified Morisita Horn index0 0.260, Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM) p<0.001). In addition, size class, and subregion were significant factors that affected diet of each species differently (ANOSIM p<0.001). Despite similarities in life histo- ry characteristics and spatial and temporal overlap in habitat, diets of these three common shark species are distinct in the California Current.

Harbor seal diet in northern Puget Sound: implications for the recovery of depressed fish stocks

MEPS Marine Ecology Progress Series Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsTheme Sections MEPS 464:257-271 (2012) - DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09880 Harbor seal diet in northern Puget Sound: implications for the recovery of depressed fish stocks Monique M. Lance1,*, Wan-Ying Chang2, Steven J. Jeffries1, Scott F. Pearson3, Alejandro Acevedo-Gutiérrez4 1Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Science Program, Lakewood, Washington 98498, USA 2National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230, USA 3Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Research Program, Olympia, Washington 98501, USA 4Department of Biology, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington 98225-9160, USA *Email: monique.lance@dfw.wa.gov ABSTRACT: Recovery of severely declining resource stocks often leads to enforced quotas or reduced human access to those resources. Predators, however, do not recognize such restrictions and may be attracted to areas of increased prey abundances where human extraction is being limited. Such targeting by predators may reduce or retard the potential recovery of depressed stocks. In the San Juan Islands, northern Puget Sound, USA, marine reserves were implemented to recover depressed fish populations. We examine the role of harbor seals Phoca vitulina in the San Juan Islands food web. We describe the temporal and spatial variability in their diet, emphasizing species for which reserves were established (rockfish Sebastes spp.) and other important depressed stocks, including salmon Oncorhynchus spp. and Pacific herring Clupea pallasii. During winter and spring, seals primarily consumed Pacific herring, Pacific sand lance Ammodytes hexapterus, northern anchovy Engraulis mordax, and walleye pollock Theragra chalcogramma. During summer/fall, adult salmonids composed >50% of the diet and were particularly important in odd-numbered calendar years, when pink salmon O. gorbuscha spawn. Rockfish were not a primary prey species at any time of the year, suggesting that the abundance of alternative prey species may reduce predation pressure and provide a critical buffer to rockfish predation. The importance of considering increased visitation by marine predators to areas where potential prey are enhanced through restrictions on human extractions should be considered when modeling the efficacy of quotas and reduced access areas, such as marine reserves. KEY WORDS: Harbor seal · Phoca vitulina · Marine reserves · Diet composition · Scat analysis · Pacific herring · Salmon · Rockfish Full text in pdf format PreviousNextCite this article as: Lance MM, Chang WY, Jeffries SJ, Pearson SF, Acevedo-Gutiérrez A (2012) Harbor seal diet in northern Puget Sound: implications for the recovery of depressed fish stocks. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 464:257-271. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09880 Export citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in MEPS Vol. 464. Online publication date: September 19, 2012 Print ISSN: 0171-8630; Online ISSN: 1616-1599 Copyright © 2012 Inter-Research.

Feeding ecology and trophic level of the banded guitarfish, Zapteryx exasperata, inferred from stable isotopes and stomach contents analysis

The feeding ecology and trophic level of the banded guitarfish, Zapteryx exasperata, from the Gulf of California, were assessed using stable isotope analysis (SIA) of carbon and nitrogen in muscle samples, and stomach contents analysis (SCA). Males and females showed similar diet preferences with a high diet overlap (Cλ = 0.99) and similar values of δ13C and δ15N (ANOVA, F = 0.0 p = 0.94 for δ13C; F = 0.1 p = 0.78 for δ15N). The main prey groups found were demersal fishes dominated by the daisy midshipman, Porichthys margaritatus, (>90%IRI), however, pelagic fishes were also found (Engraulis mordax 2%IRI). An ontogenetic diet shift was found, indicated by the importance of crustaceans in the juvenile diet and the significant isotopic differences between juveniles and adults (δ13C, ANOVA, F = 13.3 p = 0.0004 and δ15N, ANOVA, F = 4.7 p = 0.03). An overall trend of increase in δ15N values with increasing body length (F = 8.15 p = 0.005) was observed. The mean trophic level estimated in this work by the two methods was ~4.1, indicating that this species is a top predator in the Gulf of California. Zapteryx exasperata is a specialist feeder (Bi = 0.11, H’ = 2.32), consuming mainly benthic fishes in coastal areas of the Gulf of California. The importance of this species in the benthic ecosystem equilibrium as a top predator is an important point to keep in mind when developing future management plans of the batoid fishery in the Gulf of California.

Do albacore exert top-down pressure on northern anchovy? Estimating anchovy mortality as a result of predation by juvenile north pacific albacore in the California current system

Quantifying the mortality of marine fishes is important for understanding spawner–recruit relationships, predicting year-class strength, and improving fishery stock assessment models. There is increasing evidence that pelagic predators can exert a top-down influence on prey, especially during critical early life-history stages. The objective of this study was to quantify predation by North Pacific albacore on Northern anchovy in the California current system (CCS). I estimated the abundance of juvenile albacore in the CCS from 1966–2005 using stock assessment models and spatially explicit catch-per-unit-effort time series. Anchovy abundance (1966–93), both recruitment and total biomass, was obtained from a stock assessment model. Annual rates of anchovy consumption by albacore were calculated using diet studies of albacore in the CCS, an age-structured bioenergetics model, and regional estimates of albacore abundance. The range of estimates was large: albacore may remove from less than 1% to over 17% of anchovy pre-recruitment biomass annually. Relationships between predation and recruitment biomass were consistent with expectations from top-down effects, but further study is required. This is the first attempt to quantify a specific source of mortality on anchovy recruits and to demonstrate potential top-down effects of predation on anchovy.

Intraspecific comparison of diet of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) assessed using fecal and stable isotope analyses

The diet of juvenile and adult female California sea lions ( Zalophus californianus (Lesson, 1828)) at San Miguel Island, California, was estimated and compared using fecal and stable isotope analyses to determine dietary differences by age. Fecal samples were collected during 2002–2006 and prey remains were identified. Stable carbon (δ13C) and stable nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values were determined from plasma and fur obtained from yearlings, 2- to 3-year-old juveniles, and adult females during 2005 and 2006. Juveniles ate more than 15 prey taxa, whereas adult females consumed more than 33 taxa. Relative importance of prey was determined using percent frequency of occurrence (%FO). Engraulis mordax Girard, 1854, Sardinops sagax (Jenyns, 1842), Merluccius productus (Ayres, 1855), genus Sebastes Cuvier, 1829, and Loligo opalescens Berry, 1911 were the most frequently occurring (%FO &gt; 10%) prey in the feces of both juvenile and adult female sea lions, although their importance varied between age groups. Only yearlings had significantly different isotopic values than older conspecifics, indicating that older juveniles were feeding at a similar trophic level and in similar habitats as adult females. Whereas each method had biases, combining the two provided a better understanding of the diet of California sea lions and intraspecific differences.

Thirty years of using the postovulatory follicles method: Overview, problems and alternatives

The postovulatory follicles’ method or POFs method was introduced by Hunter and Goldberg in the start of the 80s and still remains the most popular method for estimating population spawning frequency in wild populations of multiple spawners. During these last thirty years the method has been applied to more than 50 fish stocks almost all around the world's oceans. Even though the method was initially designed for the stock of northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax, it has now been applied not only to other multiple spawning clupeoids (ca. 40% of total applications) but also to a large number of other fish taxa. Despite its popularity the method can be quite inaccurate when its criteria are applied to other species and populations without prior validation. Four important sources of bias in the application of the method were identified: bias related to POF staging, bias in POF ageing, sampling bias and bias in the estimation of spawning fraction. Apart from all these potential sources of bias the method is quite costly and labor-intensive because it needs large number of adult samples, much histology and many work-hours from experienced personnel. In that respect, the development of alternative methodology for estimating spawning frequency seems worthwhile.

Unique photoreceptor arrangements in a fish with polarized light discrimination

In contrast to other vertebrates, some anchovies have cone photoreceptors with longitudinally oriented outer segment lamellae. These photoreceptors are axially dichroic (i.e., they are sensitive to the polarization of axially incident light) and form the basis of a polarization detection system in the northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax. Whether other cone types exist in the retina of this animal, and whether multiple cone opsins are expressed in the retinas of anchovies, is unknown. Likewise, a detailed examination of photoreceptor ultrastructure in nondichroic photoreceptors has not been carried out despite its importance to understand visual specializations within the retina and its use in the formulation of models to explain cellular structure. Here, I combined light and electron microscopy with immunohistochemical studies of opsin expression to infer mechanisms of lamellar formation and to evaluate the potential for color vision in the northern anchovy retina. Morphological observations revealed three cone formations: 1) continuous rows made up of alternating long and short (bilobed) cones with longitudinally oriented lamellae that are orthogonal between cone types; 2) continuous rows of alternating long and short cones in which only the short cones have longitudinally oriented lamellae; and 3) rows of triple cones with transversely oriented lamellae, each triple cone consisting of two lateral cones flanking a small central cone. Ultrastructure investigations supported two models of outer segment formation resulting in the longitudinally oriented lamellae of long and short cones. In the case of the long cone, lateral compression of the outer segment, potentially via the formation of guanine platelet stacks in neighboring pigment epithelium cells, results in a shape transformation from conical to cunate and a tilt from transverse to longitudinal lamellae. In the case of the short (bilobed) cone, membrane invaginations from the connecting ciliary structure grow longitudinally to form a dichroic stack. Opsin expression studies indicated that all cones express middle-to-long wavelength opsins, with long and lateral cones possessing a different opsin from that in short and central cones, confirming the potential for color vision. Together with the ultrastructural observations, these results suggest that the unique cone topography in the northern anchovy retina may underlie a visual system with segregated color and polarization detection channels.

Trophic Transfer of the Harmful Algal Toxin Domoic Acid as a Cause of Death in a Minke Whale (&lt;I&gt;Balaenoptera acutorostrata&lt;/I&gt;) Stranding in Southern California

Unusually high concentrations of the neurotoxin domoic acid (DA) were detected in a minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) carcass recovered during a severe harmful algal bloom (HAB), which occurred in southern California in April 2007. Cell fragments of the toxigenic diatom Pseudonitzschia australis were observed in whale gastric fluid and feces, corresponding to a dominance of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. in the phytoplankton community at the time of stranding. A high abundance of otoliths from a prominent DA vector, the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), were recovered in whale stomach contents, indicating trophic transfer of DA via the food web. Whale feces contained 258 µg DA per gram sample, exceeding DA concentrations reported for any marine mammal. DA intoxication was identified as the cause of mortality of this animal, expanding on the limited understanding of the impacts of DA-producing HABs on large whales.

Timing of forage fish seasonal appearance in the Columbia River plume and link to ocean conditions

This study described the phenology and patterns of variability of forage fish and meso- zooplankton populations near the Columbia River plume. Our objective was to identify the timing of the seasonal appearance of forage fish and to characterize the temporal patterns of abundance in relation to ocean conditions including zooplankton availability. Observations were collected at 2 sta- tions in 2008 and 2009 using 200 kHz bio-acoustic moorings, and with bi-weekly net sampling surveys conducted at nearby stations to measure total fish density and relative species composition. Acoustic time series results revealed that the seasonal timing of acoustic schools, representing the forage fishes northern anchovy Engraulis mordax, whitebait smelt Allosmerus elongatus, and Pacific sardine Sardinops sagax, occurred abruptly, with specific dates of appearance identified at each station in mid-May in both years. Both 2008 and 2009 represented very similar years for the timing and strength of wind-driven coastal upwelling. The timing of forage fish appearances in these years was linked with ocean temperature and salinity data collected at a nearby oceanographic buoy but was poorly correlated with mesozooplankton abundance, which was highly variable and fluctuating over a period of hours to days. Fluctuations in zooplankton and forage fish populations drive many trophic interactions, including juvenile salmon, seabirds, and large predators (e.g. adult salmon) that rely on the timing and abundances of these populations and have significant implications for eco- system based management.

Energy dynamics and growth of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) from the Central Valley of California during the estuarine phase and first ocean year

The greatest rates of energy accumulation and growth in subyearling Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) occurred during the first month following ocean entry, supporting the importance of this critical period. Data from an 11-year study in the coastal ocean off California and the San Francisco Estuary revealed that juvenile salmon gained 3.2 kJ·day–1and 0.8 g·day–1, representing 4.3%·day–1and 5.2% day–1, respectively, relative to estuary exit values. Little gain in energy (0.28 kJ·day–1) or size (0.07 g·day–1) occurred in the estuary, indicating that the nursery function typically ascribed to estuaries can be deferred to initial ocean residence. Calculated northern anchovies ( Engraulis mordax ) equivalents to meet energy gains were one anchovy per day in the estuary (8% body weight·day–1) and about three per day immediately following ocean entry (15% body weight·day–1). Energy content in the estuary was positively related to higher salinity and lower freshwater outflow, whereas in the ocean, cooler temperatures, lower sea level, and greater upwelling resulted in greater gains. These results suggest that greater freshwater flows, warmer sea temperatures, and reduced or delayed upwelling, all of which are indicated by some (but not all) climate models, will likely decrease growth of juvenile Chinook salmon, leading to reduced survival.