Northwest Pakistan Research Articles

Analyzing Spatial Autocorrelation for the Hypsometric Integral to Discriminate Neotectonics and Lithologies Using DEMs and GIS

This investigation documents the sensitivity of the hypsometric integral (HI) and its relationship to neotectonics and lithology. We used digital elevation models (DEMs) of 30 and 90 m spatial resolution from the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) and the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) to calculate HI values in the Hindu Kush and its vicinity (Northwest Pakistan and Northeast Afghanistan). We used an analysis grid of regular squares of different sizes to calculate maximum, minimum, and mean elevations. The spatial distributions of HI do not show clear spatial patterns and correlation with mean elevation or relief amplitude. We applied spatial pattern analysis using Local Indices of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA) to measure the degree to which our HI distribution was clustered, dispersed, or randomized. LISA analysis shows that the data are autocorrelated because of high positive z-scores. Hot spots (clusters with high HI values) are consistent with tectonic uplift and show a strong correlation with the different structural domains in the region. Cold spots represent recent sedimentation close to faults and coincide with shallow earthquake clusters in the region. The HI values do not show any correlation with relative topographic position or lithology. Analysis of HI distribution shows that they are robust and independent of digital elevation model (DEM) resolution but are strongly scale dependent. The LISA technique allows the extraction of clusters of the HI that reveal recent tectonic processes; otherwise it is difficult to interpret the high variability of HI values. The scale dependency of the HI may reflect the varying importance of drainage network and hillslope processes.

Contribution to the Red List of Pakistan: a case study of the narrow endemic Silene longisepala (Caryophyllaceae)

AbstractSilene longisepala Nasir (Caryophyllaceae) is a plant endemic to Chitral District in mountainous north-west Pakistan. This taxon was previously known from only two localities. In field studies during 2005–2007, 24 new localities in lower Chitral were discovered. We found 608 mature individual plants in 22 localities in 2005, 520 mature individuals in 17 localities in 2006, and 531 mature individuals in 18 localities in 2007. Considering the population size in 2007, an extent of occurrence of 3,587 km2 and area of occupancy of 104 km2, we recommend that the species is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The main threat to the species is habitat destruction from road construction, land conversion for agriculture and soil erosion following deforestation; we witnessed the direct effects of these pressures on S. longisepala during our fieldwork. In some localities, however, S. longisepala is fortuitously protected by the general inaccessibility of its habitat. There is no legal framework in Pakistan for the protection of rare and endemic plant taxa on private lands and therefore ex situ conservation may be required for narrow endemics such as S. longisepala. Our methodology in this study, in which we combined detailed field surveys with monitoring, could form a model for conservation research on rare and endemic plant taxa in Pakistan and elsewhere.

Development and implementation of a nutrition intervention programme in North West Pakistan: a realist framework

Maternal and infant malnutrition is prevalent in rural regions of NW Pakistan. This article reports on the use of a combination of a realist Context-Mechanism-Outcome framework and participatory appraisal methods to facilitate the development of a locally sensitive and responsive nutritional intervention programme. Data were gathered through a series of focus group (FG) discussions with local lady health workers, as well as pregnant and breastfeeding women attending an Emergency Field Hospital in North West Pakistan between May 2008 and March 2009. A nutrition intervention programme was implemented that involved cookery demonstration kitchens and free food supplements, coupled with nutrition and healthcare information and advice for pregnant and breastfeeding women. Subsequent FG discussions revealed that the programme had a positive impact on knowledge gained by women in the community and generated an openness to receiving and spreading knowledge. The framework, which rested on the use of a double feedback loop, involving local women, lady health workers, local researchers and UK-based researchers, has enabled not only the establishment of the programme, but has also given the local team the tools to apply for, and gain, further funding for the development of nutrition support services. The development of such methodological tools, which empower local researchers and service providers (wherever located) to operationalize local knowledge and assess interventions, is particularly relevant in international financially-constrained contexts.

Pakistan

Pakistan

F. Khan, J.R. Knox, K.D. Thomas, C.A. Petrie & J.C. Morris (edited by C.A. Petrie). Sheri Khan Tarakai and early village life in the borderlands of north-west Pakistan. xxxii+646 pages, 279 illustrations, 90 tables. 2010. Oxford & Oakville (CT): Oxbow; 978-1-84217-396-1 hardback £40.

F. Khan, J.R. Knox, K.D. Thomas, C.A. Petrie & J.C. Morris (edited by C.A. Petrie). Sheri Khan Tarakai and early village life in the borderlands of north-west Pakistan. xxxii+646 pages, 279 illustrations, 90 tables. 2010. Oxford & Oakville (CT): Oxbow; 978-1-84217-396-1 hardback £40.

English

The study was carried out to assess the phytochemical and antimicrobial bioassay of five medicinal plants, Lepidium sativum, Nerium oleander, Ranunculus repens,Tecoma stans and Urtica dioca. These plants are traditionally used as medicine in the Northwest Pakistan, therefore it is necessary to identify and  estimate their alkaloid, flavonoid, saponin, phenol and tannin contents. Phytochemical inveigation of plant samples determines that alkaloid (63.6%) and flavonoid (0.91%) were highest in N. oleander, saponin (11%) and phenol (0.031) in T. stans, tannin (0.61%) in L. sativum, All five species showed no significant antimicrobial activities.   Key words: Medicinal plants, phytochemical analysis, antimicrobial activities.

Interactive Effect of Potassium and Phosphorus on Grain Quality and Profitability of Sunflower in Northwest Pakistan

A field experiment was conducted using a split plot randomized complete block design with three replications to study the effects of potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) application on sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) growth at the New Developmental Research Farm of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural University in Peshawar, Pakistan. Six levels of K (0, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 125 kg K ha −1) were main plots while four levels of P (0, 45, 90 and 135 kg P ha −1) were subplots. Increase in both K and P levels enhanced grain oil concentration of sunflower. Increase in P level increased grain protein concentration, while increase in K level decreased grain protein concentration. Both oil and protein yields increased significantly with increase in K and P levels. The increase in oil and protein yields of sunflower was mainly attributed to the improvement in yield components (grains per head, grain weight and head size) and the significant increase in grain yield. The highest net returns of 297 and 368 US$ ha −1 based on grain and oil yields, respectively, were obtained from a combination of 100 kg K ha −1 + 45 kg P ha −1.

Dilemmas and challenges in forest conservation and development interventions: Case of Northwest Pakistan

Conservation and development projects are key instruments of international development agencies for natural resource conservation and rural development. However, despite some success stories, conservation of natural resources (particularly forests) in conjunction with socio-economic development – which is the precondition for sustainable development – remained a challenge in most of the developing countries. In Pakistan, too, natural forests in the Northwestern highlands continue to be depleted in spite of numerous interventions, by the international donors, to conserve the remaining forests. This paper uses a sustainable development perspective, and attempts to study the quest by the forest conservation and development interventions – initiated by the overseas development aid – regarding operationalisation of sustainable development as conceived by the projects' implementing agencies and thereby comparing it with local implementation context in terms of perceived impact/usefulness, and participation of stakeholders in the projects. This paper argues that, without considering socio-economic realities at micro (village) level, one cannot envisage the success of conservation and development interventions by considering only structural and meso (national/regional) levels. Forestry should be seen in a multi-stakeholder scenario where various actors have different claims and entitlements over forest resources. Major challenge for international development donors is to ensure a balance of power between stakeholders.

3D seismic imaging over two structurally complex surveys in the foothills of Pakistan

In a tectonically complex area of northwest Pakistan, MOL Pakistan and its partners acquired two 3D seismic surveys. Extreme topography led to irregular shooting geometry. Varied surface access over this terrain required a mix of Vibroseis and dynamite source types to maximize subsurface coverage. With the combination of difficult surface conditions over a structurally complex subsurface, the data processing and merging of these two surveys required close attention to detail throughout the processing sequence, and we had to rely on the most robust algorithms in the data processing toolkit. There was no single technology that stood out in the processing, but by taking care at every stage in the processing sequence we were able to produce a readily interpretable seismic volume.

Comment on “‘Elevated heat pump’ hypothesis for the aerosol-monsoon hydroclimate link: ‘Grounded’ in observations?” by S. Nigam and M. Bollasina

In their recent paper, Nigam and Bollasina [2010] (hereinafter NB) claimed to have found observational evidences that are at variance with the elevated heat pump (EHP) hypothesis regarding the possible impacts of absorbing aerosols on the South Asian summer monsoon [Lau et al., 2006; Lau and Kim, 2006]. We found NB's arguments and inferences against the EHP hypothesis flawed, stemming from their own out of context interpretation of the hypothesis. NB argued that the simultaneous negative correlation of aerosol with rainfall, and correlations with other quantities in May, are evidence against the EHP hypothesis. Their argument cannot be justified. First, Lau and Kim [2006] (hereinafter LK06) never stated that the main rainfall response to EHP is in May. Second, the EHP is about responses of the entire Indian monsoon system that are nonlocal in space and time with respect to the aerosol forcing. As shown in Figure 4 of LK06, while the aerosol anomalies are strongest in April-May, the strongest rainfall response is in June-July, with the enhanced rainfall fed by an induced thermally driven circulation which brings additional moisture from the ocean to the Indian subcontinent. Third, the increased rainfall over the Bay of Bengal as shown in Figure 1a of NB and the increased low-level convergence in Figure 1f of NB do not necessarily reflect responses associated with EHP but rather the large ]scale circulation that provides the buildup of the aerosols before the onset of the monsoon rainfall over India. Because aerosol can only accumulate where there is little or no washout by rain, the negative correlation is a necessary condition for increased atmospheric loading of aerosols. For the same reason, the spatial distributions of rainfall and aerosol generally are offset with each other, i.e., high aerosol in regions of low rainfall. This is evident in Figure 1, which shows the climatological mean of the MODIS aerosol optical depth (AOD), and TRMM rainfall over India in May. The maximum AOD is found over the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the desert regions of northwest India and Pakistan

Medicinal plants in old-growth, degraded and re-growth forests of NW Pakistan

Many old-growth forest stands in northwest Pakistan have been structurally transformed as a consequence of logging and livestock grazing, some of which are thereafter left to secondary succession. These forests represent an important resource for local inhabitants who gather and sell medicinal plants as part of their livelihood. With this in mind, the main objectives of our study were: (1) to assess differences in the structure of the tree layer and the abundance of medicinal plants among differently transformed forests, (2) to evaluate the recovery potential of medicinal plants under re-growth forests, and (3) to assess relationships between tree stand structural characteristics and the occurrence of medicinal plants. The first step of the study involved creating an approximate map covering an area of 90 km 2 for five forest-use types (old-growth forest, forest degraded by logging, derived woodland, agroforest and re-growth forest). Fifteen plots per forest-use type were randomly allocated at altitudes ranging from 2200 m to 2400 m asl, within which the abundance of 10 locally important medicinal herb species was assessed. The study stands differed greatly in tree basal area, which was highest in old-growth forest (48 m 2 ha −1), lowest in agroforest areas (6 m 2 ha −1) and intermediate in re-growth forest (20 m 2 ha −1). All ten medicinal plant species were encountered in old-growth and in re-growth forests, but only five of these species also occurred on agroforest plots. The mean coverage of study medicinal plants was highest in old-growth forest (7%), low in forest degraded by logging, derived woodland and agroforest (0.3–2%), and intermediate in re-growth forest (4%). The Jaccard abundance based similarity index indicates a considerable similarity (0.6) between re-growth and old growth forest for both trees and medicinal plants. The overall abundance of medicinal plants increased with increasing tree basal area and canopy cover. The abundance of some particular species decreased; however, the most sought-after medicinal species Bergenia ciliata, Valeriana jatamansi and Viola cancescens increased with tree basal area within specific forest-use type and also across forest-use types. In conclusion, our data suggest that anthropogenic forest degradation leads to a reduction in the abundance of economically viable medicinal plants for the study region. It is further indicated that this can be reversed if degraded forests are allowed to regenerate.

Common Cocklebur Competition in Forage Maize

Common cocklebur is a new weed in irrigated maize grown for forage in the hot, dry region of northwest Pakistan. We conducted experiments in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Peshawar, Pakistan, during 2006 and 2007 to evaluate the interaction of common cocklebur density and maize density on biomass, leaf area index (LAI), and plant height of forage maize. Seven common cocklebur densities (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 plants m−2) in maize planted at four densities (5, 7.5, 10, and 12.5 plants m−2) were evaluated. An ANOVA for both years revealed significant main effects and interactions for all variables. Regression of measured variables against common cocklebur density showed that maize biomass declined linearly as common cocklebur density increased from 0 to 12 plants m−2, with an increasing rate of decline for high maize densities and low maize densities. Combined data for all maize densities revealed that the relationship between maize biomass and common cocklebur biomass fit a linear function, with 1.28 to 1.35 kg ha−1loss in maize biomass for each kilogram per hectare increase in common cocklebur biomass from about 1,500 to 3,200 kg ha−1. Above 8 to 10 common cocklebur plants m−2, weed biomass declined, presumably due to intraspecific competition. An increase in common cocklebur density decreased maize LAI about 0.15 to 0.3 units for each additional common cocklebur plant per square meter in 2006, and 0.11 to 0.24 units in 2007. Common cocklebur LAI increased in a linear fashion as density of the weed increased. Results suggest that the effect of common cocklebur interference on maize biomass was associated with a change in allocation of resources, resulting in increased crop height growth at the expense of a reduction in LAI and presumably potential light interception by the crop as common cocklebur density increased.

WHEAT RESPONSE TO FARM YARD MANURE AND NITROGEN FERTILIZATION UNDER MOISTURE STRESS CONDITIONS

Information on the combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) productivity is lacking under moisture stress conditions of Northwest Pakistan. The present experiment was designed to ascertain the combined effect of organic and inorganic fertilizer management on rainfed wheat. Four levels of farm yard manure, FYM, (0, 10, 20, and 30 Mg FYM ha−1) and nitrogen (0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 kg N ha−1) were used. The experiment was conducted at the Agriculture Research Farm of NWFP Agricultural University Peshawar, Pakistan during crop season of 2003–04. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with four replications. Plant height, productive tillers m−2, grains spike−1, grain yield, straw yield, and harvest index were significantly higher in plots which received 30 Mg FYM ha−1. In the case of nitrogen (N) no distinctive differences between the effect of 90 and 120 kg ha−1 was observed for most of the parameters. Nitrogen application at 90 kg ha−1 had significantly higher; plant height, grains spike−1, grain yield, straw yield, and harvest index as compared with the lower levels, i.e., 0, 30, and 60 kg N ha−1 but were at par with 120 N kg ha−1. Significantly higher numbers of productive tillers m−2, grains spike−1, grain yield, straw yield and harvest index were recorded with application of 30 Mg FYM ha−1 + 90 kg N ha−1. The present study suggested that application of 30 Mg FYM ha−1 + 90 kg N ha−1 are promising levels for higher production of wheat under moisture stress conditions. Further research work is needed to ascertain the effect of N above 90 kg ha−1 under different moisture regimes.

Analysis of rural household employment structure in northwest Pakistan

espanolEste trabajo intenta identificar las tendencias en los patrones de empleo domestico asi como los factores que determinan las opciones de trabajo domestico en zonas rurales del noroeste de Pakistan. Un analisis comparativo de la estructura del empleo con las encuestas realizadas en 1967-68 y 1986-87 revela que ha habido un crecimiento importante en las actividades no agricolas en las ultimos cuatro decadas con la participacion exclusivamente del sector agropecuario se redujo del 31% en 1967-68 a solo el 8% en 2005-06. Del mismo modo la participacion de la agricultura familiar combinada con las actividades no agricolas tambien se reduce al 16%. En la actualidad, en el sector no agricola el 27% de los hogares se dedican a actividades empresariales relacionadas, mientras que aproximadamente el 50% encuentra su sustento en el sector salarios. Este desarrollo se debe a un gran aumento de la poblacion, asi como la reduccion de las oportunidades de empleo en el sector agricola. Del mismo modo, los resultados del modelo logit multinomial revelan que el tamano del hogar, el acceso de los trabajadores domesticos jovenes, miembros adicionales de trabajo, y el ingreso per capita, son importantes factores determinantes en la eleccion del empleo domestico. El articulo concluye que con el fin de elevar las zonas rurales, se le debe dar al sector no agricola su debida importancia en las politicas nacionales de desarrollo. EnglishThis paper attempts to identify the trends in household employment patterns as well as factors determining household occupational choices in rural northwest Pakistan. A comparative analysis of the employment structure with surveys conducted in 1967-68 and 1986-87 reveals that there has been a major growth in non-farm activities over the past four decades with the share of exclusively farming sector reduced from 31% in 1967-68 to just 8% in 2005-06. Similarly the share of household combing farming with non-farm activities also reduced to 16%. At present, within non-agricultural sector 27% of the households are engaged in business related activities while about 50% find their livelihood in wage-salary sector. This development is caused by a large increase in population as well as shrinking of the employment opportunities in the farming sector. Likewise, results from the multinomial logit model reveal that household size, access number of young household workers, additional working members, and per capita income, are important determinants of a household employment choice. The paper concludes that in order to uplift rural areas, non-farm employment sector may be given due importance in the national development policies.

Timing and Rate of Phosphorus Application Influence Maize Phenology, Yield and Profitability in Northwest Pakistan

Phosphorus (P) is the second most important crop nutrient after nitrogen that increases productivity and profitability of maize (Zea mays L.) on P deficient soils in Northwest Pakistan. The objective of this study was to find the best level and time of P application for higher maize (cv. Azam) productivity and profitability. Field experiment was conducted at the Research Farm of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Agricultural University, Peshawar during summer 2005, comprising of six P application timings [40, 30, 20 and 10 days before sowing (DBS), at sowing and 15 days after sowing (DAS)] as main plots, and three P levels (30, 60 and 90 kg P ha -1 ) as subplots. The highest level of P enhanced phenological development, and increased ear length, number of rows and grains ear -1 , grain weight, economic yield, shelling percentage, and net returns. Application of P at 10 DBS had marked increase in ear length, grain weight, grain yield, shelling percentage and net returns; while plots that received P at sowing time produced the highest number of rows and grains ear -1 . There was no much difference in the net returns when P was applied at 10 DBS (22, 560 PKR ha -1 ) or at sowing (21, 883 PKR ha -1 ). It could be concluded from the study that application of 90 kg P ha -1 either at 10 DBS or at sowing time is necessary for profitable maize production in the study area.

Timing and Rate of Phosphorus Application Influence Maize Phenology, Yield and Profitability in Northwest Pakistan

Timing and Rate of Phosphorus Application Influence Maize Phenology, Yield and Profitability in Northwest Pakistan

NITROGEN RATES AND ITS TIME OF APPLICATION INFLUENCE DRY MATTER PARTITIONING AND GRAIN YIELD IN MAIZE PLANTED AT LOW AND HIGH DENSITIES

Best nitrogen (N) management practices are most important for increasing maize (Zea mays L.) productivity and profitability in Northwest Pakistan. Field experiments were performed at the New Developmental Research Farm of NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar during summer 2002 and 2003. Factorial experimental treatments were two plant densities (D1 = 60,000 and D2 = 100,000 plants ha−1) and three N rates (N1 = 60, N2 = 120 and N3 = 180 kg N ha−1) as main plots, and six split N applications in different proportions at different growth stages of maize (cv. ‘Azam’) in two equal, three equal, three unequal, four equal, five equal and five unequal splits at sowing and with first, second, third, and fourth irrigation at two week intervals as subplots. Application of the higher N rate (180 kg ha−1) with 4 to 5 splits significantly increased leaf, stem, ear, and total plant dry weight at silking and physiological maturity as well as grain yield plant−1 at both low and high plant densities. Variation in dry matter partitioning and grain yield in maize due to fluctuation in the rainfall data of the two years suggests zonal specific effective N management practices for sustainable maize production in different agro-ecological zones of Northwest Pakistan.

Interactive Effects of Potassium and Phosphorus on Phenology and Grain Yield of Sunflower in Northwest Pakistan

Potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) applications improve growth, increase yield and yield components of sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) on K and P deficient soils in Northwest Pakistan. A field experiment was conducted using sunflower cv. Hysun-33 at the New Developmental Research Farm of KPK Agricultural University, Peshawar, Pakistan, during summer 2006. The experimental design was a randomized complete block in split plot arrangements, with six levels of K (0, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 kg K ha −1) as main plots and four levels of P (0, 45, 90, and 135 kg P ha −1) as sub-plots with three replications. Sunflower yield and yield components responded positively to K and P fertilization but the magnitude of response varied with the levels of K and P. Days to flowering and maturity, grains per head, 1000-grain weight, shelling percentage, and grain yield increased tremendously in the K and P-fertilized plots as compared to the control with no K and P applied. The combined application of 100 kg K and 45 kg P ha −1 significantly increased yield components, grain yield, harvest index, and shelling percentage of sunflower, suggesting that 100 kg K ha −1 in combination with 45 kg P ha −1 could maximize productivity of sunflower planted after wheat on the K and P deficient soils in the study area.

Timing and Rate of Nitrogen Application Influence Profitability of Maize Planted at Low and High Densities in Northwest Pakistan

Getting maximum benefits from maize (Zea mays L.) lies not in reducing N rate and its number of splits but in lowering cost per unit production through higher yields. Field experiments were conducted on maize at the New Developmental Research Farm of North West Frontier Province (NWFP) Agricultural University Peshawar during summer 2002 (Y1) and 2003 (Y2) to investigate the effects of variable rates of N and its time of application on the net returns (NR) of maize (cultivar Azam) planted at low and high densities. The 2 × 3 × 6 factorial experiment was designed having two plant densities (D1 = 60,000 and D2 = 100,000 plants ha−1) and three N levels (N1 = 60, N2 = 120 and N3 = 180 kg N ha−1) as main plots, and six split N applications: two equal (S1), three unequal (S2), three equal (S3), four equal (S4), five equal (S5) and five unequal splits (S6) applied at sowing and with first, second, third, and fourth irrigation at 2 wk intervals as subplots. Maize planted at high density gave about 18% higher NR than at low density, and the increase in NR was comparatively more (3%) in the second growing season than the first growing season. Net returns showed positive relationship with increase in N rates, and increased by 19,565 and 31,948 PKR ha−1 with 120 and 180 kg N ha−1, respectively as compared with 60 kg N ha−1 The increase in NR with N3 was 39% greater than N2. Among the N timings, S5 showed the highest NR (16,646 PKR ha−1) and was 3, 21, and 97% greater than S6, S4, and S3,, respectively. The NR from S2 was negative (−783 PKR) when compared with S1 (control). In conclusion, the findings suggests that growing maize at high density applied with 180 kg N ha−1 in five equal or unequal splits could be more economical in terms of NR in the study area.

Proximate and nutrient composition of medicinal plants of humid and sub-humid regions in North-west Pakistan.

The study was carried out to assess proximate composition and nutrientcontents of five medicinal plant species collected from Northwest Pakistan.Bupleurum falcatum and Valeriana officinalis belongs to humid regions, whileForsskalea tenacissima, Lavandula angustifolia and Otostegia limbata belongs to sub-humid regions. Proximate analysis (total protein, fats, carbohydrate, ash, and moisture contents) were carried out following methods of Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Macronutrients (Ca, Mg, Na, K) and micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cr, Co, Mn) were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry. Results revealed higher concentration of macronutrients in F. tenacissima and micronutrients in O. limbata. In conclusion, sub-humid region’s species are having higher nutritional value than humid region’s species. Key words: Proximate analysis, micro and macro nutrients, medicinal plants, humid region, sub-humid region.