North Korean Refugees Research Articles

Pro-Work Reforms of the North Korean Defector Settlement Support System in South Korea: Changes in Benefit Levels and Differences across Groups

Pro-Work Reforms of the North Korean Defector Settlement Support System in South Korea: Changes in Benefit Levels and Differences across Groups

Exploration of Factors Entering Crisis Situations of North Korean Defectors and Improvement of Support System

Exploration of Factors Entering Crisis Situations of North Korean Defectors and Improvement of Support System

Digital literacy and social capital during COVID-19 : a comparison among vulnerable social groups

ABSTRACT This study examined the digital literacy of vulnerable social groups (North Korean defector and marriage immigrant) and the effects of their digital literacy on social capital compared to the general public (South Korean). We used data of South Koreans, North Korean defectors, and marriage immigrants from the ‘2020 The Report on the Digital Divide’. We analysed the difference in digital literacy between the general population (South Korean) and the vulnerable groups (North Korean defector and marriage immigrant) after COVID-19, and how this gap affects the social capital of each group. We discussed how vulnerable group’s digital literacy could become more disproportionate compared to mainstream society in a catastrophic situation, which can lead to weakened social capital.

Changes in the concept of time among North Korean refugees: A socio-cultural perspective.

Refugees from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and geopolitical locations face temporal challenges during their transition, yet more research needs to be conducted to understand their time conception in the host society. This study explores how North Korean refugees from remote rural areas in North Korea and China adjusted their time conception in a metropolitan city in South Korea. Data were collected through a pilot study (January-March 2017) and ethnographic fieldwork (February-July 2018), entailing semi-structured interviews, informal conversations, and field notes. Vygotsky's psychological tool and Ricoeur's interpretive approach were employed to solicit the mediation of time conception through organizational activities and narrative meanings. The analysis reveals themes that challenge refugees' time conception reflecting North Korean values and daily activities-Kimilsungism, collectivism, and task-oriented attitude-and the changes in time conception on the sense of the self. Refugees' learning in time conception is a holistic spiritual, social, and personal process.

Knowledge of atopic dermatitis and food allergies, as well as health information literacy, among North Korean refugee mothers: a descriptive survey study.

This study investigated knowledge of atopic dermatitis and food allergies, as well as health information literacy, among North Korean refugee mothers with preschool-age children and explored how these variables were related to participants' characteristics. A descriptive study design was used. Data from 130 North Korean refugee mothers were collected between January and March 2023. The mean scores were 14.48 of 30 for atopic dermatitis knowledge; 2.77 of 10 for food allergy knowledge, and 56.95 of 80 for health information literacy. Significant differences were observed in knowledge of atopic dermatitis based on breastfeeding duration (F=4.12, p=.009), and in knowledge of food allergies based on mixed feeding (F=3.11, p=.049). Health information literacy showed significant relationships with education level (F=3.76, p=.026), occupation (F=3.99, p=.021), checking nutritional information (t=2.91, p=.004), mixed feeding (F=4.50, p=.014), and atopic dermatitis diagnosis (t=6.86, p=.001). Significant positive correlations were observed between atopic dermatitis knowledge, food allergy knowledge, and health information literacy. Personalized educational programs should be implemented to improve awareness of allergies and health information literacy among North Korean refugee mothers, which would help them find, evaluate, and understand health-related information. These programs should focus on providing nutrition and dietary education to promote healthy growth in children and prevent diseases.

How do North Korean refugees in South Korea utilize social support to cope with acculturative stress?

Geographic resettlement induces acculturative stress in refugees. In response, they utilize social support to deal with acculturative stress and to adapt to the host community. In this study we sought to understand how North Korean refugees (NKRs) utilize social support to reduce acculturative stress. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 30 NKRs in South Korea and 20 South Koreans (SKs) who were friends or acquaintances of NKRs. Purposive and snowballing sampling strategies were used to recruit participants at two sites. Following a Grounded Theory approach, we analyzed the data using initial coding, focused coding, and constant comparison. We found that NKR participants coped with loneliness by exchanging emotional support with other NKRs who share their lived experiences and by building solidarity with them. NKRs described expanding their social networks to include SKs in order to assimilate into their communities. Many SKs tried to develop family-like relationships with NKRs. While SKs were important resources for informational or instrumental support early on, their roles were sometimes replaced by other NKRs as social ties among NKRs were strengthened. All NKRs who reported that they strategically approached SKs to learn about South Korean culture had held full-time jobs and appeared to be better adjusted to South Korea. Appraisal support was the least reported type of social support, but some NKRs tried to deal with social discrimination through positive appraisal. To reduce acculturative stress, NKRs sought varied types of social support from different kinds of social network members. Findings highlight the need to diversify and strengthen social support for NKRs, thereby fostering coping strategies and reducing acculturative stress.

The moderating role of neighborhood social cohesion in the mediation effects of the loneliness between acculturation stress and post-traumatic growth among female North Korean defectors

Loneliness negatively predicts post-traumatic growth (PTG) among North Korean defectors (NKD), one of the representative groups of refugees. Additionally, evidence also suggests that females, who account for 70% of NKDs entering South Korea, are vulnerable not only to past trauma but also to the current acculturation stress and loneliness affected by neighborhood social cohesion. This study explores whether the mediating effect of loneliness on the relationship between acculturation stress and PTG was moderated by the neighborhood social cohesion among female NKDs. In this study, the data of 166 female NKDs who completed an online survey regarding acculturation stress, PTG, loneliness, and neighborhood social cohesion were used. Moderated mediation analysis was conducted using SPSS PROCESS macro program. Loneliness was associated with PTG (B = − 1.896, p < 0.001), and mediated the association between acculturation stress and PTG (indirect effect = − 0.278, 95% LLCI − 0.403, 95% ULCI − 0.166). Neighborhood social cohesion moderated the mediation effect of loneliness on the association between acculturation stress and PTG (B = − 0.016, 95% LLCI 0.001, 95% ULCI 0.035). The indirect effect of acculturation stress on PTG through loneliness was notably high for those with low neighborhood social cohesion. Therefore, increasing neighborhood social cohesion would reduce loneliness caused by acculturation stress and support the positive growth among female NKDs. This represents the most effective approach to aiding female NKDs in achieving growth, even after suffering trauma.

North Korean refugee students’ strategy of school engagement and its impact on identity in South Korea: “aspiration towards an inter-Korean identity through a process of being one of them.”

ABSTRACT As of December 2023, 34078 North Korean refugees live in South Korea, raising concerns about social exclusion and marginalization. A Straussian grounded theory study analysed the experiences of 17 female North Korean refugees in South Korea, highlighting a disparity between their legal rights and everyday participation, especially in education. Educational inequality for North Korean refugee students persists, stemming from academic deficits and institutional barriers. To cope, they employ a strategy of ‘being one of them’, aiming to blend in as South Korean peers while concealing their heritage. This approach fosters confidence and supportive relationships, aspiring the development of an inter-Korean identity that values their North Korean heritage and embraces a sense of belonging in South Korea. The study sheds light on the necessity of adopting a social perspective in multicultural education, emphasizing the importance of intergroup dialogue in promoting inclusive representation of North Korean refugee students within the educational setting.

Health and Labour Market Outcomes of North Korean Refugees in South Korea

ABSTRACT This study utilises the National Health Insurance Service of Korea (NHIS) data which include the results of annual and bi-annual health screening of North Korean refugees together with indicators of their employment and earnings and investigates the relationship between the refugees’ health and labour market outcomes. We find that the refugees with poor health significantly underperform healthy refugees in the labour market, and the impact of poor health at the time of entry lasts longer than 10 years. We also find that poor health has greater detrimental effects on refugees than on non-refugees.

북한이탈주민 유튜브 방송 담화에 나타난 반복의 기능 연구

The purpose of this study is to analyze the functions of repetition in the YouTube discourse of North Korean defectors. For this purpose, 10 videos were selected by probability sampling method from the two-person broadcasts of &lt;Yoon Seol-mi TV, a Joint Area of North and South Korea&gt; channel. The discourse in the videos was transcribed using CLOVA Note and WaveSurfer programs. Based on the transcribed data, the functions of repetition in the YouTube discourse of North Korean defectors were analyzed by dividing repetition into self-repetition and other-repetition. The results showed that repetition performed four major functions: discourse progression, information delivery, emotional, and identity formation. This confirmed that repetition is not a simple linguistic phenomenon, but a communication strategy in the discourse of North Korean defectors. The data used in this study were collected from a limited range and scale, so there are limitations to generalize the results of the study. However this study has significance in that it provides a new perspective on the communication characteristics and strategic functions of repetition of North Korean defectors.

Relationship between Cultural Competence, Perception of Discrimination and Acculturation Stress among North Korean Refugee Women

Relationship between Cultural Competence, Perception of Discrimination and Acculturation Stress among North Korean Refugee Women

“I’m not angry!”: language ideologies, misunderstanding, and marginalization among North Korean refugees in rural South Korea

Abstract This qualitative study examines the language attitudes and language use of two North Korean refugees living in the Gyeongsang provincial region of South Korea and actively trying to assimilate into mainstream Korean society. In interviews, the participants expressed a hierarchical view of three varieties of Korean (their North Korean Hamgyong dialect, the South Korean Gyeongsang dialect, and standard South Korean). They discussed how their North Korean accents exacerbated their marginalization, described the Gyeongsang dialect as “ignorant” and “rude,” and explained how and why they were trying to acquire standard South Korean. They also described how their North Korean accent continued to affect their communication with local South Korean speakers, who often perceived them as sounding angry and commanding. The participants had developed diverse communicative strategies in response to these language-related challenges, including smiling so as to not appear aggressive, remaining silent to avoid being outed by their speech, speaking carefully to appear more South Korean and avoid potential misunderstandings, and proactively revealing their North Korean background and seeking their interlocutors’ understanding in advance. Based on the findings, the study offers practical implications for language-support programs designed for North Korean refugees.

A meta-analysis of the effects of lifelong vocational education in South Korea

PurposeThis study aims to conduct a quantitative meta-analysis of previous research on lifelong vocational education to generate generalized conclusions about its effects, set directions for future lifelong vocational education and identify implementation measures.Design/methodology/approachTo conduct a meta-analysis on research results that have a heterogeneous distribution, it is important to specify the analysis category for examining the effects of research variables.FindingsFirst, lifelong vocational education has an effect on dependent variables. And action appears to have the highest effect size on dependent variables. Next, when calculating the size of variables that had an effect on lifelong vocational education by educational type, the effect size of informal education was found to be larger than that of formal education. Finally, regarding the effect on the participants, office workers were influenced most, followed by university students, North Korean defectors, job seekers and foreigners.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough this study attempted to conduct an in-depth analysis of subcomponents, it was not possible to analyze variables at a more detailed level. Therefore, future studies should aim to conduct a more comprehensive analysis of different variables based on a wider composition. Because lifelong vocational education is relevant to people’s daily lives, it should be investigated in the context of their personal characteristics and social backgrounds.Practical implicationsThis research was designed to uncover general effects of lifelong vocational education and discover relevant variables affecting lifelong vocational education in South Korea. A meta-analysis of 15 studies with 67 subgroups examining lifelong vocational education was conducted.Social implicationsIn the current era of VUCA (Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity and Ambiguity), lifelong vocational education needs to be organized systematically, unlike in the past. With the rapid advancements in technology influenced by artificial intelligence and the fourth industrial revolution, there is a surge in social demands for continued reeducation and redevelopment of employees to prepare for talent development paradigm innovation, increasing unemployment among unskilled workers and competence enhancement needs among job seekers and employed individuals.Originality/valueThis study aims to conduct a quantitative meta-analysis of previous research on lifelong vocational education to draw generalized conclusions on its effectiveness and discuss its implications for implementation measures. Specifically, this study will analyze the general effect size; differences in the effect size among different dependent variable groups; and the effect size based on lifelong vocational education participants.

Can technology break the invisible wall? Exploring mobile application needs and preferences among North Korean refugees in South Korea

Although the ubiquity of digital technology among refugees inevitably changes resettlement experiences, studies exploring the utility and usability of mobile applications (apps) centered on refugees’ needs and priorities are largely fragmented. Using focus groups with North Korean refugees in South Korea ( N = 40), we explored the utility and usability of mobile apps, examined differences in app preferences among demographic subgroups and proposed recommendations for tailored app features. Six themes emerged under two domains: (a) content needs and priorities, and (b) feature preferences. Study findings highlight refugees as both consumers and producers of knowledge with implications for scaling up digital interventions for refugee resettlement.

Moderating effects of social networks on gender-based violence and intimate partner violence among North Korean refugee women.

Moderating effects of social networks on gender-based violence and intimate partner violence among North Korean refugee women.

Response Strategies Through Case Analysis and Reasons for Re-Entry of North Korean Defectors

Purpose: As of December 2021, there are 33,819 North Korean defectors who have entered the Republic of Korea. To support their stable settlement, the public and private sectors are implementing a settlement support policy. However, due to discrimination in South Korean society and longing for family, there is a problem of re-entry to North Korea after leaving South Korea. After analyzing the causes of re-entry into North Korea, the purpose of this study is to provide policy suggestions to block re-entry into North Korea, such as improving the resettlement support system for North Korean refugees and Strengthening the pro-tection officer system.&#x0D; Method: The concept of North Korean defectors and re-entry is defined, the current status of North Ko-rean defectors entering the country and re-entry is identified, and the causes and problems of re-entry are analyzed through case studies of re-entry.&#x0D; Results: In the case of North Korean defectors who have entered South Korea, despite government poli-cy support, they are experiencing difficulties in adapting due to discrimination and neglect by South Kore-ans, difficulties in finding a job, and longing for their families in North Korea. Some of them were found to be re-entering North Korea to meet their families in North Korea.&#x0D; Conclusion: Problems were derived by analyzing the causes and cases of re-entry of some North Korean defectors. Based on these problems, I would like to suggest policy implications such as improving the edu-cation system for North Korean defectors and a resettlement support system that fits the reality in order to block re-entry.

Analysis of the Financial Behaviors of North Korean Refugees in South Korea

North Korean refugees born and raised under the socialist economy have faced challenges in adapting to the advanced consumer financial market in South Korea. We construct individual-level panel data on the refugees and native-born individuals sharing similar characteristics in terms of demographic and economic variables using the Korean credit bureau (CB) data. Panel analysis reveals a significantly higher number of delinquencies by the refugees than the native-born control group. These findings suggest that the lack of financial knowledge stemming from prolonged residence in a socialist society has a negative impact on defectors’ financial adaptation in South Korea. However, as the length of credit history which is a proxy of financial literacy increases, the number of delinquencies of the refuges drops much faster than that of the control group. Additional support, such as financial education, must therefore be considered to facilitate economic integration for the refugees.

National Security Perceptions of Korean University Students

Purpose: Korean university students have a special interest in security issues, understand the importance of Northeast Asian and foreign situations and national security, and have a sense of responsibility. This is because Korean university students recognized the importance of security through service in the military, and they are aware of security threats and espionage activities even after being discharged. Therefore, by publishing this thesis in English, we intend to contribute to prosperity and peace by sharing information on the security awareness of Korean university students with researchers around the world.&#x0D; Method: Frequency analysis was conducted to identify general characteristics using the SPSS/PC+23.0 program, and Cronbach’s α coefficient was calculated to verify the reliability of the questionnaire. In addition, Factor Analysis, Correlation Analysis, and Simple Linear Regression Analysis were conducted on Korean university students’ perception of counterespionage activities, security reporting methods, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government.&#x0D; Results: ‘Threat and awareness’ factors were extracted for Korean university students’ perception of counterintelligence activities, and 'public factors' and 'personal factors' were extracted for security reporting methods. As major national threats, 'dictatorship' and 'liberal democracy' were classified and extracted, and the government's role was extracted as requiring 'joint response'. Perception of counterintelligence activities correlated with security reporting methods, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government. There was also a significant correlation between security reporting methods, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government. As a result of simple linear regression analysis, it was found that counterintelligence activity perception affects the method of reporting security, threats from neighboring countries, and the role of the government.&#x0D; Conclusion: Korean university students are aware of threats from neighboring countries, and Korea’s military service system is important for raising awareness of the importance of national security through mandatory service in the army and training in the reserves. Korean university students have negative perceptions of the dictatorships of neighboring countries North Korea and China, are aware of China's espionage and cyber psychological warfare, and are aware of the reality by watching TV broadcasts featuring North Korean defectors, and are fully aware of the threat. In response to these threats, Korean university students aspire for stability and prosperity in Northeast Asia through joint responses by government departments.

신임경찰관의 북한이탈주민 인식태도 및 수용성 확대 방안에 관한 인식 연구

The purpose of this study is to present policy suggestions on desirable attitudes toward North Korean defectors through empirical research on the level of familiarity and interest in North Korean defectors, image of North Korea, and image-shaping influence media for new police officers trained at the National Central Police Academy. In order to conduct empirical research, a survey was conducted on 300 adult men and women in their 20s and older who were educated at the National Central Police Academy through the self-evaluation method. From October 1 to October 10, 2021, 300 people responded to a randomized sampling survey with a response rate of 100%, using 300 surveys and analyzed using the IBM SPSS program. As a result of the analysis, the frequency of contact with North Korean defectors in terms of demographic characteristics showed a static correlation with affinity for North Korean defectors, and a talisman correlation with the image of North Korea. Attitudinal traits showed a statistically significant correlation between the three variables of friendliness, interest, and image with North Korean defectors. As for the affinity for North Korean defectors, it can be seen that the more frequent contact there is, the higher the affinity for North Korean defectors. In terms of interest in North Korean defectors, women were more interested in North Korean defectors than men, a statistically significant difference. The image of North Korea showed an inappropriate correlation with the frequency of contact with North Korean defectors. In other words, the more North Korean defectors meet, the more negative images of North Korea accumulate. When we checked the media that influenced the formation of North Korea's image, the media (TV and media media) accounted for more than half of the media (56.0%), followed by the Internet (including SNS) and education. This study seeks to make the following policy recommendations. First, it is the gradual resolution of the “South-South conflict” in Korean society. Second, strengthen multicultural education and publicity activities for the people. Third, the development of various policies. Fourth, comprehensive network construction. Fifth, it is necessary to limit the spread of negative images of North Korean defectors in the mass media. Sixth, strengthen training for new police officers.

Providing Access to Higher Education for Refugees: Comparative Analysis and Policy Recommendations for South Korea

Securing higher education rights for refugees is critical not only for refugees’ selfempowerment but also for the peaceful development of communities. Qualifications recognition is a major barrier when refugees attempt to apply for work or higher education, due to missing documents or unavailability of issuing institutions in their home countries. This issue led to the 2019 Global Convention as the first global treaty on higher education. However, South Korea, a rising power with a normative policy focus, has little addressed qualifications recognition for refugees. Therefore, this research examines the extent to which South Korea, has internalised international norms regarding the provision of education for non-North Korean refugees. Then, by benchmarking the policies of Western normative middle powers, Canada, Norway, and Australia, the research analyses the strengths and limitations of existing qualifications recognition policies for refugees. The paper also refers to the existing policy for access to higher education for North Korean refugees in South Korea. It argues that South Korea should not only welcome more refugees but also develop an effective measure for the recognition of qualifications for refugees to integrate them as productive members of the society in fulfilment of its international humanitarian obligations, but also in accordance with its national interest. Lastly, this research concludes with policy recommendations for establishing a fair and effective recognition system for qualifications of refugees in South Korea, modelled on existing policies for North Korean refugees.