Northeast Spain Research Articles

Aerosol optical depth in a western Mediterranean site: An assessment of different methods

Column aerosol optical properties were derived from multifilter rotating shadowing radiometer (MFRSR) observations carried out at Girona (northeast Spain) from June 2012 to June 2014. We used a technique that allows estimating simultaneously aerosol optical depth (AOD) and Ångström exponent (AE) at high time-resolution. For the period studied, mean AOD at 500nm was 0.14, with a noticeable seasonal pattern, i.e. maximum in summer and minimum in winter. Mean AE from 500 to 870nm was 1.2 with a strong day-to-day variation and slightly higher values in summer. So, the summer increase in AOD seems to be linked with an enhancement in the number of fine particles. A radiative closure experiment, using the SMARTS2 model, was performed to confirm that the MFRSR-retrieved aerosol optical properties appropriately represent the continuously varying atmospheric conditions in Girona. Thus, the calculated broadband values of the direct flux show a mean absolute difference of less than 5.9Wm−2 (0.77%) and R=0.99 when compared to the observed fluxes. The sensitivity of the achieved closure to uncertainties in AOD and AE was also examined. We use this MFRSR-based dataset as a reference for other ground-based and satellite measurements that might be used to assess the aerosol properties at this site. First, we used observations obtained from a 100km away AERONET station; despite a general similar behavior when compared with the in-situ MFRSR observations, certain discrepancies for AOD estimates in the different channels (R<0.84 and slope<1) appear. Second, AOD products from MISR and MODIS satellite observations were compared with our ground-based retrievals. Reasonable agreements are found for the MISR product (R=0.92), with somewhat poorer agreement for the MODIS product (R=0.70). Finally, we apply all these methods to study in detail the aerosol properties during two singular aerosol events related to a forest fire and a desert dust intrusion.

Aramis un modelo regional para la gestión de la calidad del aire. Evaluación y validación

The aim of this research was to better understand the dynamics of air pollutants and to forecast the air quality over regional areas in order to develop emission abatement strategies for air pollution and adverse health effects. To accomplish this objective, we developed and applied a high resolution Eulerian system named ARAMIS (A Regional Air Quality Modelling Integrated System) over the north-east of Spain (Catalonia), where several pollutants exceed threshold values for the protection of human health. The results indicate that the model reproduced reasonably well observed concentrations, as statistical values fell within Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommendations and European (EU) regulations. Nevertheless, some hourly O3 exceedances in summer and hourly peaks of NO2 in winter were underestimated. Concerning PM10 concentrations less accurate model levels were obtained with a moderate trend towards underestimation during the day.

Impact of an intense rainfall event on soil properties following a wildfire in a Mediterranean environment (North-East Spain)

Intense rainfall events after severe wildfires can have an impact on soil properties, above all in the Mediterranean environment. This study seeks to examine the immediate impact and the effect after a year of an intense rainfall event on a Mediterranean forest affected by a high severity wildfire. The work analyses the following soil properties: soil aggregate stability, total nitrogen, total carbon, organic and inorganic carbon, the C/N ratio, carbonates, pH, electrical conductivity, extractable calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, available phosphorous and the sodium and potassium adsorption ratio (SPAR). We sampled soils in the burned area before, immediately after and one year after the rainfall event. The results showed that the intense rainfall event did not have an immediate impact on soil aggregate stability, but a significant difference was recorded one year after. The intense precipitation did not result in any significant changes in soil total nitrogen, total carbon, inorganic carbon, the C/N ratio and carbonates during the study period. Differences were only registered in soil organic carbon. The soil organic carbon content was significantly higher after the rainfall than in the other sampling dates. The rainfall event did increase soil pH, electrical conductivity, major cations, available phosphorous and the SPAR. One year after the fire, a significant decrease in soil aggregate stability was observed that can be attributed to high SPAR levels and human intervention, while the reduction in extractable elements can be attributed to soil leaching and vegetation consumption. Overall, the intense rainfall event, other post-fire rainfall events and human intervention did not have a detrimental impact on soil properties in all probability owing to the flat plot topography.

Mesolithic fuel use and woodland in the Middle Ebro Valley (NE Spain) through wood charcoal analysis

Abstract This work provides new data concerning plant use in prehistoric times at northeast of Spain. We present preliminary results from three Mesolithic settlements: Angel I (Ladrunan, Teruel), Esplugon (Sabinanigo, Huesca) and Espantalobos (Quicena, Huesca). The study includes anthracological sequences from Pre-Pyrenees, Ebro Depression, and Iberian Ranges so that the geographical location of the sites covers a diversity of environments inside the Mediterranean region of vegetation. The aim of this work is to assess the influence of geographic and climatic factors in the availability of fuels and their implications for human management of these. According to pollen information, the Mesolithic, the last stage of an exclusively predatory economy based on hunting and gathering, is also a period of environmental change. Our preliminary results show that i) conifers, especially pine, either Mediterranean ( Pinus halepensis ) in drier areas or montane pines ( Pinus type sylvestris ) in higher elevations, appear as the most widely firewood used in all archaeological layers studied, ii) consumption of Quercus appears often but always with very low percentages, iii) the taxonomic diversity observed in the center of the valley contrasts with the specific poverty in mountainous areas where we only documented the consumption of pines and oaks. The last hunter-gatherer communities in the Middle Ebro Valley seem to have used opportunistic strategies of fuel management, and consumed a variety of wood species in the Early Holocene.

Meteorological Analysis Systems in North-East Spain: Validation of SAFRAN and SPAN

We present an application and validation of the SAFRAN meteorological analysis system for north-east Spain. SAFRAN is also compared to the SPAN analysis system and the meteorological model HIRLAM-HNR, both operational at AEMET. This application of SAFRAN is intended for hydrological studies. This is the first study that shows an application of SAFRAN outside of France and that compares it with SPAN. This is also the first article validating SPAN's rainfall values. Using one year of observational data, the results show that both SAFRAN and SPAN have a similar performance, which is also similar to SAFRAN's performance in France. Thus, SAFRAN and SPAN are both good tools to force land surface models at high resolution in the area of SAFRAN works under the assumption of the existence of climatically homogeneous zones. Two different sets of zones were tested, one based on the AEMET meteorological warning zones and another one based on hydrological catchments. Better results were obtained when using meteor-ological warning zones. However, the difference is small. In north-east Spain, SAFRAN has the same limitations that were previously shown in France: the spatial structure of the fields is not realistic enough and wind speed is underestimated. As expected, both SAFRAN and SPAN work better in flat areas than over areas of steep relief. This can be a problem in hydrological studies, especially for the Ebro river basin, where most of the runoff is generated in the Pyrenees.

Reducing Data Uncertainty in Surface Meteorology Using Data Assimilation: A Comparison Study

Data assimilation in weather forecasting is a well-known technique used to obtain an improved estimation of the current state of the atmosphere (analysis). The Meteorological Service of Catalunya (SMC) is seeking for a real time high resolution analysis of surface parameters over Catalonia (north-east of Spain), in order to know the current weather conditions at any point of that region. For this purpose, a comparative study among several data assimilation experiments based on LAPS (Local Analysis and Prediction System) and STMAS (Space-Time Multiscale Analysis System) and multi-regression technique designed at SMC, has been performed to determine which one delivers best results. The comparison has been done using as true state independent observational data provided by the Spanish Meteorological State Agency (Agencia Estatal de METeorologia, AEMET). The results show that the multi-regression technique provides more accurate analyses of temperature and relative humidity than the LAPS/STMAS experiments, mainly due to the fact that multi-regression methodology only uses observations and consequently the model biases are avoided.

Changes in surface solar radiation in Northeastern Spain over the past six centuries recorded by tree-ring δ13C

Although solar radiation at the surface plays a determinant role in carbon discrimination in tree rings, stable carbon isotope chronologies (δ13C) have often been interpreted as a temperature proxy due to the co-variability of temperature and surface solar radiation. Furthermore, even when surface solar radiation is assumed to be the main driver of 13C discrimination in tree rings, δ13C records have been calibrated against sunshine duration or cloud cover series for which longer observational records exists. In this study, we use different instrumental and satellite data over northeast Spain (southern Europe) to identify the main driver of tree-ring 13C discrimination in this region. Special attention is paid to periods in which the co-variability of those climate variables may have been weaker, such as years after large volcanic eruptions. The analysis identified surface solar radiation as the main driver of tree-ring δ13C changes in this region, although the influence of other climatic factors may not be negligible. Accordingly, we suggest that a reconstruction of SSR over the last 600 years is possible. The relation between multidecadal variations of an independent temperature reconstruction and surface solar radiation in this region shows no clear sign, and warmer (colder) periods may be accompanied by both higher and lower surface solar radiation. However, our reconstructed records of surface solar radiation reveals a sunnier Little Ice Age in agreement with other δ13C tree-ring series used to reconstruct sunshine duration in central and northern Europe.

Cultivation potentiality of black truffle in Zaragoza province (Northeast Spain)

ABSTRACTBlack truffle (Tuber melanosporum Vittad.) has very specific environmental requirements. We integrated these requirements in a geographic information system and weighted them depending on their importance for the presence of the species, based on previous field and laboratory experience. The parameters considered were divided into three groups: (i) topographic; (ii) climatic and (iii) edaphic. A multicriteria analysis was used to develop a final potential habitat map, and filtering it by land uses we produced the cultivation potential map. The result of this work is a 1:275,000 map of Zaragoza province (Spain) that integrates all mentioned maps. This is a practical tool for territory managers, farmers and researchers who will be capable of identifying the better cultivation zones in the Zaragoza province with this map.

El impacto del riego en la calidad del agua de drenaje en una nueva zona regable

&lt;p&gt;La calidad del agua de dos sistemas de drenaje agrícola fue monitorizado en dos temporadas de riego para determinar la sostenibilidad de una zona recientemente transformada de secano a regadío y gestionada por la Comunidad de Regantes del Canal de Algerri-Balaguer, en el Noreste de España. La conductividad eléctrica media estuvo alrededor de los 4 dSm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;, y las aguas se enriquecieron con boro, fósforo y nitratos. El drenaje representó un 17% del total de agua de riego aplicada (fracción medida de lavado) y se considera necesario para minimizar el riesgo de salinización del suelo en ambientes semiáridos. Los iones más comunes presentes en las aguas de drenaje fueron el magnesio, el sulfato, y el calcio y otros relacionados con la disolución de minerales presentes en la zona de estudio. La presencia de Fe, Cu, Mg, Zn y fitosanitarios fue insignificante. La información que proporcionó el estudio fue muy interesante para la Comunidad de Regantes, y los aspectos metodológicos pueden ser aplicados en otras comunidades de regantes, ya que podría ayudar a mejorar las prácticas agrícolas y utilizarse para controlar la calidad y cantidad del agua de drenaje.&lt;/p&gt;

Selecting an Efficient Adaptation Level to Uncertain Water Scarcity by Coupling Hydrological Modeling and Economic Valuation

Water planners are increasingly in need of raising more complete information on the hydrological and economic consequences of water management in order to take adequate decisions to secure water supply in the future. This paper combines a scenario-based modeling of future impacts on water availability at basin level with economic valuation to answer the following questions: Which is the most cost-effective adaptation strategy? Is adaptation bringing net benefits to society as opposed to no adaptation? How to select an efficient adaptation level, if any, when facing uncertainty on which future scenario will apply? The model integrates cost-effectiveness analysis of adaptation measures, monetary valuation of avoided scarcity impacts and hydrologic modeling. By testing a set of cost-effective strategies at basin level in several potential short-term drought scenarios, we identify the most efficient strategy that should be implemented by water planners. The model is applied to the Llobregat river, in north-east Spain.

Rehabilitation of Historic Masonry Bridges: Lessons Learned from a Medieval Bridge in Northeast Spain

In the Iberian Peninsula there are many masonry bridges enduring over time that require inspection and maintenance. In 2007 it was carried out a restoration project on the bridge of Sant Andreu de Terri (Girona, Spain). Prior to this intervention, the bridge did not meet the safety and comfort requirements for the crossing of people and the walls showed loss of masonry stones and material from joints. The surface was cleaned and replaced the existing metal rail. The board was replaced; waterproof and longitudinal drainage pipes were installed to prevent water infiltration. As result of this action a historical, artistic and architectural heritage construction was recovered re-offering the use for which it was conceived.

Classification and characterisation of SRF produced from different flows of processed MSW in the Navarra region and its co-combustion performance with olive tree pruning residues

The scope of this work is to study the co-combustion of a solid recovered fuel (SRF) produced from household wastes and packaging wastes recovered from selective collection (SC) in the autonomous community of Navarra, located in the northeast of Spain. The municipal solid waste (MSW) is subjected to a mechanical biological treatment (MBT) in order to stabilize the organic matter and recover the recyclable materials as it is done for packaging wastes. Afterwards, rejects from this treatment plant were preconditioned and compressed by a pelletizing process to produce a secondary fuel according to quality and classification criteria of EN 15359, producing the so-called SRF. A fuel characterisation was carried out according to CEN standards and the SRF was classified as follows: NCV 2; Cl 3; Hg 1. SRF pellets were cofired with residual biomass pellets from olive tree pruning (OTP) in a bubbling fluidised bed combustor, as an option of energy recovery. The mixture of fuels, with a mixing ratio close to 50% by weight, showed a significant calorific value of 18.25MJ/kg at 8% of moisture content. In addition, elemental composition of the mixture based on nitrogen (N), sulphur (S) and chlorine (Cl) (1% N, 0.2% S and 0.4% Cl) was not far from some herbaceous biomasses. The co-combustion showed good results as an energy recovery technology because of the synergies of both fuels, improving notably the combustion conditions and reducing significantly CO concentration, regarding to the combustion of OTP, though other contaminants such as NOx and HCl increased. During eight hours of stable operation, the concentration of dioxins and furans was measured obtaining a value of 7.68ng/Nm3 (toxic equivalence: i-TEQ of 0.33ng/Nm3). Proportions of SRF lower than 50% in the mixtures should be tested in order to cut down the emissions of these pollutants, or an abatement system for organochloride compounds may be required.

EXPLORE: An action to bring science and technology closer to secondary school

This paper presents the experience of an initiative, the EXPLORE courses, designed to bring science and technology closer to secondary school and to encourage scientific and technological vocations. The EXPLORE courses, organised by “EXPLORATORI dels Recursos de la Natura” project, are particularly addressed to secondary school teachers and are conducted at Catalonia (north-east of Spain). The main objective is to provide secondary school teachers with the opportunity to explore the natural resources. Based on a combination of face-to-face and online learning, the programme of the courses uses an interdisciplinary approach, integrating science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and STEAM (STEM + art) fields. Data presented in this paper correspond to the 2012 and 2013 editions. The results, which were obtained from a written questionnaire completed by participating teachers of EXPLORE courses, indicate that more than 70% of secondary school teachers were encouraged to introduce some course contents on their teaching classes after participating in an EXPLORE course.

Life Cycle Assessment of multiyear peach production

Considering that peach is a significant fruit in the Mediterranean countries, and most publications on environmental impacts of fruit productions are based on one single productive year, this study attempts to perform an environmental analysis of peach production using Life Cycle Assessment, in order to provide new information on peaches, and also introduce a multiyear perspective analysis to identify the variability of the environmental impacts related to annual orchard yield and weather variations. The system studied is a peach orchard (Prunus persica L.) with integrated agricultural practices. The study analyses the cultivation period, as well as the impact of the initial orchard establishment tasks (soil preparation and planting). Data used have been collected directly from an orchard located in the North East of Spain, and covers 15 years of real production. The functional unit adopted was the cultivation of 1 kg of peach. Four scenarios have been considered according to the different yield periods of the peach fruit tree: Growth, Low, High and Multiyear. The results of the study reveals that, depending on production scenario considered, the results per kg of peach can vary between 7% and 69% depending on the environmental indicator. If the impact of initial orchard establishment tasks (soil preparation and planting) is not included in the quantification, then 5% of total emissions may be overlooked, but sometimes a lack of data makes it difficult to include these stages. Caution should be taken when the functional unit is related to mass and only when a single year of production is studied, because unproductive years increase impacts on value per functional unit, whereas over-productive years decrease them. According to variability of the results obtained, multiyear approach should be considered in crops with an average life time of twenty years or higher. The present study can be considered a useful methodological framework for providing a deeper understanding of the key environmental impact issues related to fruit production based on peach case study, and how to avoid multiple interpretation of results associated to reporting annual environmental impact variations.

Absolute order-of-magnitude reasoning applied to a social multi-criteria evaluation framework

A social multi-criteria evaluation framework for solving a real-case problem of selecting a wind farm location in the regions of Urgell and Conca de Barberá in Catalonia (northeast of Spain) is studied. This paper applies a qualitative multi-criteria decision analysis approach based on linguistic labels assessment able to address uncertainty and deal with different levels of precision. This method is based on qualitative reasoning as an artificial intelligence technique for assessing and ranking multi-attribute alternatives with linguistic labels in order to handle uncertainty. This method is suitable for problems in the social framework such as energy planning which require the construction of a dialogue process among many social actors with high level of complexity and uncertainty. The method is compared with an existing approach, which has been applied previously in the wind farm location problem. This approach, consisting of an outranking method, is based on Condorcet's original method. The results obtained by both approaches are analysed and their performance in the selection of the wind farm location is compared in aggregation procedures. Although results show that both methods conduct to similar alternatives rankings, the study highlights both their advantages and drawbacks.

Global production chains in the fast fashion sector, transports and logistics: the case of the Spanish retailer Inditex

The concept of the global production network expressively covers the spatial interrelationships characteristic of the economy due to the existence of worldwide flows of information, raw materials, components, and finished products. Recent geographical analyses of global production networks in different economic sectors demonstrate that little attention has been paid to the logistical and transport systems through which networks are fully integrated. Nevertheless efficient logistics and transport services are essential to an understanding of their organisational and geographical structure. The supply chains of big fashion retailers provide a good example because the choice of global or local supply depends on whether suppliers rely on efficient transport and logistics systems that let them compensate for higher relative costs compared with developing countries —in the case of local supply— or the costs deriving from their greater distance to the market —in the case of global supply. In addition the challenges presented by the functional and geographical integration of fashion production networks can only be overcome if global retailers manage their logistics efficiently and leverage the differentiated advantages of the modes of transport in relation to time.This paper on Inditex, a Spanish leading group in the fashion sector, analyses how transport and logistics fit into the production network and provide the firm with one of its most notable competitive advantages. We first discuss the dilemmas that fashion retailers face when organising the supply chain and the contribution of logistics and transport to its functional and geographical integration. We then open the study of Inditex by describing the network of shops and manufacturing, presenting the principles of the logistical model, and providing details of the procedures applied for the functional and geographical integration of the chain of production of Zara, the best known of the company’s 11 brands. The analysis, based on recent and previously unpublished data on the brand’s logistics hub in Zaragoza (northeast Spain), sheds light on the modus operandi of the group and confirms the crucial importance of logistics in all facets of the production model. First, efficient logistics and sufficiently fast transport, allow the company to enjoy short lead times and be present in economically and geographically very disparate markets. Second, the productive structure, combining nearby and distant manufacturing, and both dispersion and concentration spatially and in production, also relies on the effectiveness of the logistical model. On the one hand, better internal and external communication and greater productivity compensate for the company’s higher costs of manufacturing in nearby areas. On the other, the vigour of the four clusters of suppliers in Asia (China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India) rests on the availability of efficient logistics and transport services, including air transport, which ameliorate the costs of their distance to the company’s distribution centres in Spain and other markets. Finally, we offer details of how the Inditex group completely centralises the distribution of its products to shops. The data for the Zara logistics hub in Zaragoza (North East of Spain) illustrate the value given to time in the company’s activities and how this consideration influences the organisation of the flows in and out of the hub. Air transport is used to send garments to distant markets and also for the reception of high-fashion-content garments from the Asian clusters and for their quick delivery to various markets despite the distance.The results provide evidence for considering logistics and transport as key facilitators for the Inditex expansion, but we understand that the effects described in the paper can extend to the fast fashion sector as a whole in that the geographical configuration of global networks increasingly depends on the organisational and logistical strategies that the firms adopt in order to meet the needs of time-sensitive customers. At the conclusion we remind that a heavy dependence on energy and the likelihood of fuel price increases threaten the future viability of a logistic model based on the present unrealistic cheapness of fast transport. As establishing the scope and reach of these aspects would require complementary analysis, we finish the paper whith tuh hope of having stimulate interest for a better understanding of the logistical and transport systems within the global production networks in a possible new economic and environmental context.

Trichinella pseudospiralis in the Iberian peninsula

Nematode worms of the genus Trichinella are zoonotic parasites circulating in most continents, including Europe. In Spain, Trichinella spiralis and Trichinella britovi are highly prevalent in wildlife but seldom in domestic pigs. In Portugal, only T. britovi was documented in wild carnivores. In the period 2006–2013 in Spain, 384 (0.0001%) pigs and 1399 (0.20%) wild boars (Sus scrofa) were positive for Trichinella spp. larvae, which were identified as T. spiralis or T. britovi. In 2014, Trichinella pseudospiralis larvae were isolated from a wild boar hunted in the Gerona province, Cataluña region, North-East of Spain, near the border to France. This is the first report of T. pseudospiralis in the Iberian peninsula, which suggests a broad distribution area of this zoonotic nematode in Europe. Since larvae of this Trichinella species do not encapsulate in the host muscles, they can be detected only by artificial digestion of muscle samples. T. pseudospiralis is the only Trichinella species infecting both mammals and birds. Birds can spread this pathogen over great distances including islands triggering new foci of infections in areas previously considered at low risk for this pathogen.

Do Sesamia nonagrioides (Lepidoptera; Noctuidae) gravid females discriminate between Bt or multivitamin corn varieties? Role of olfactory and visual cues.

The Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides Lefèbvre, is a key pest of corn and a main target of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn in Northeast Spain. Trends for future biotechnology crops indicate that Bt, non-Bt, and stacked corn varieties with metabolic pathways for vitamin-increased traits could coexist in same region. Knowledge of the oviposition response of gravid females of S. nonagrioides to these different varieties could be extremely important for managing strategies aimed for delaying resistance development. In dual-choice assays, we examined the host preference of gravid females of S. nonagrioides for four corn varieties: a new transgenic corn with increased vitamin levels, its near isogenic counterpart (M37W), a Bt corn plant, and its near isogenic counterpart. Olfactory cues were the predominant ones when gravid females looked for a suitable host to lay eggs, and no synergistic effects were observed when both visual and olfactory cues were present. When the plant was visible, the females preferred the odors emitted by the nontransgenic to its multivitamin transgenic counterpart and when they only could detect the volatiles they also preferred the nontransgenic M37W variety to the Bt corn variety. If gravid females are less attracted to corn with an increased level of vitamins, this could impact insect resistance management and the value of refuge plants, if such traits are stacked with an insect resistance trait.

Response to conspecific and heterospecific semiochemicals by Sesamia nonagrioides (L.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) gravid females.

The Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides, occurs sympatrically in the northeast of Spain with other lepidopteran pests such as Ostrinia nubilalis and Mythimna unipuncta. In this study, we evaluated the electrophysiological and behavioural response of mated and unmated females and males of S. nonagrioides to their own complete pheromone blend, to its own four components separately, and to the pheromone components of the sympatric species O. nubilalis and M. unipuncta. Results of the electroantennogram recordings revealed that females of S. nonagrioides can detect their own pheromone blend and its individual components. Moreover, our results show that unmated females and males of S. nonagrioides are more sensitive to the female pheromone, showing higher electrophysiological response than the mated females and males. Electroantennogram recordings showed that males and females can detect the major sexual pheromone component of O. nubilalis (Z)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and the minor component of the pheromone of M. unipuncta (Z)-9-hexadecenyl acetate. When the sex pheromone stimulus was presented in the dual-choice assays, gravid females of S. nonagrioides were attracted to both their own complete pheromone blend and one of their own minor pheromone components, (Z)-11-hexadecenal, but the major sexual pheromone component of O. nubilalis acts as a behavioural antagonist to the females.

Understanding forest owners’ preferences for policy interventions addressing mushroom picking in Catalonia (north-east Spain)

The present study investigates private forest owners’ perceptions of mushroom picking in Catalonia and develops a model of preferred policy intervention (introducing a regulation, a payment or keeping the status quo). The results allow the modelling of forest owners’ preferences regarding policy interventions based on two factors: their perception of property rights over mushrooms and their perception of related nuisances. Owners perceiving a low degree of harm and expressing a preference for free access rights for mushroom picking would maintain the current situation. Owners suffering from actual harm or threatened by potential harm call for regulation on mushroom harvesting. Payment is advocated by those who already experienced harm and consider mushrooms to be private goods, hence legitimating benefit gain from mushroom picking on their properties. Actual implementation of picking limitations or payments largely depends on perceived constraints, especially the fear of revenge and control costs. Interviewees considered that interventions led by the government could potentially overcome such constraints. Regarding design features of potential intervention, most forest owners advocated a more favourable treatment of local pickers, although almost no difference was found in the treatment of commercial and recreational harvesters.