North-central Arizona Research Articles

Recent dynamics and mortality rates of the Kaibab deer herd

Survival rates and expected sex ratios are estimated for the Kaibab mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) of north central Arizona from harvest age–frequency distributions. During the study period (1972–1979) the population was declining at 9% per year. Annual survival rates for females older than 1.4 years were 0.63 and 0.62 for the eastern and western overwintering herds, respectively. For males older than 3.4 years, the corresponding rates were 0.50 and 0.44, respectively. These survival rates did not change appreciably with age beyond 1.4 years for does and 3.4 years for bucks. When survival rates were adjusted by subtracting reported firearm harvests, the rates show only a small difference between the sexes. Sex ratios estimated from the survival rates differed markedly from field estimates. Possible biases in both the field methods and in the use of harvest age distributions to infer population age structure are examined. The potential value of analyses of age distributions is discussed with regard to augmenting and independently verifying field data.

Adaptations for Seed Dispersal and the Compromises Due to Seed Predation in Limber Pine

Cone and seed morphology and phenology of the closely related limper pine (Pinus flexilis) and southwestern white pine (P. strobiformis) were studied in relation to selective seed harvesting by red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) and Clark's Nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana) on two study sites in north central Arizona. We examined possible selective influences that favor characteristics of both wind— and corvid— dispersed seeds in the limber pine. In a density forested site, red squirrels harvested >80% of the cones of both pine species before they opened. Seeds from cones harvested by red squirrels were unlikely to germinate. Harvesting of cones and seeds by red squirrels was hindered by pitch and several other cone features. Pitch was more effective in slowing red squirrel harvesting on limber pine than on southwestern white pine. When red squirrels were absent from the open study site, >70% of the cones opened on the trees. Clark's Nutcracker usually harvested seeds from open cones. Limber pine as compared to southwestern white pine was more evenly and completely harvested by nutcrackers, probably because the cones ripened synchronously within a tree and asynchronously among trees. Cones of southwestern white pine ripened synchronously within and among trees, thus saturating both nutcrackers and squirrels. Differences between the two pines are most readily interpreted as adaptations for increasing seed dispersal, hindering limber pine's main seed predator (red squirrel) and facilitating seed harvest by its most important seed disperser (Clark's Nutcracker). We conclude that squirrels in the genus Tamiasciurus are an important constraint on the development of cone characteristics that enable efficient seed harvest by birds. Furthermore, adaptations of pines for seed dispersal depend on the relative harvest by predators and dispersers during the different stages of cone—ripening phenology.

The anomalous geomagnetic variation field and geoelectrical structure associated with the Mesa Butte fault system, Arizona

A study of the regional geomagnetic variation field in north-central Arizona indicates the presence of a concentration of geoelectrical current on the eastern margin of the Mesa Butte fault system. A lack of obviously conductive geologic structures at the surface suggests that this telluric current concentration is caused by crustal geoelectrical structures.

The Ferns of Elden Mountain, Arizona

Elden Mountain, located immediately northeast of Flagstaff in north-central Arizona, is an unusual volcanic peak with a diverse fern flora. The earliest pteridophyte collections from the area are those taken by L. N. Goodding in 1913. Whiting and Bradey collected extensively on the mountain during the 1930's and were apparently the first to encounter Asplenium adiantum-nigrum in 1935. In a short article discussing the occurrence of this species in Arizona, Wherry (1941) mentioned five other ferns casually observed during a visit to the locality. Phillips (1946, 1947) listed five additional taxa for the mountain, bringing the number of reported species to 11. The flora of Elden Mountain received little attention during subsequent years, and much of the area remained unexplored when a forest fire inflicted heavy damage in June, 1976. Concerned about the fate of several rare species, I began a comprehensive survey of surviving fern populations in 1978. Elden Mountain is a massive dacite dome located near the center of the San

Late Jurassic Tectonism on West Side of Colorado Plateau, Utah and Arizona: ABSTRACT

Detailed sedimentologic studies in south-central Utah and north-central Arizona indicate that several major basins and uplifts as well as many smaller folds within them were actively growing during deposition of the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation. The region lies outside that part of the Colorado Plateau underlain by thick Pennsylvanian halite deposits so the structures are not related to salt deformation. Tectonic activity in the region is inferred from several types of sedimentologic features which include thickness variations, facies distribution, cross-bedding parameters, and bedding ratios. Distribution of the various features studied indicates the Emery, Circle Cliffs, Echo Cliffs-Kaibab, Cow Springs, and Monument uplifts, as well as the Henry and Kaipar wits basins, were active during the Late Jurassic. In addition, several anticlines and synclines that were active at the same time can be delineated in or near the Henry and Kaiparowits basins. The apparent absence of local angular unconformities in the Salt Wash near the positive structures suggests that most of the tectonic movements were the result of differential subsidence rather than uplift of the positive structures. It could not be determined if the San Rafael swell near the Emery uplift was active during Late Jurassic time. Also, the relationships are not entirely conclusive but suggest that the Cow Springs uplift may have extended southeast across Black Mesa and that downwarping may not have occurred there in the Late Jurassic. Late Jurassic folds have essentially the same northwest to north-northwest trend as many of the Laramide and possibly younger folds in the region although the older folds tend to be less sinuous. Vertical repetition of lacustrine strata, deposited under conditions especially sensitive to slight tectonic movements, suggest that the movements were episodic. Comparison of the present amount of structural relief with the Late Jurassic structural relief indicates that approximately 3 to 7% of the present-day relief between several of the major basins and uplifts can be attributed to tectonic movements during deposition of the Salt Wash. Thus, it is erroneous to assume that all of the structural deformation in the region occurred during or after the Laramide orogeny. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1351------------

A rock magnetic study of the lower massive sandstone, Moenkopi Formation (Triassic), Gray Mountain Area, Arizona

This paper describes the results of rock magnetic and petrographic studies of the Lower Massive sandstone of the Moenkopi Formation, north central Arizona, which heretofore has been considered to be a reliable magnetostratigraphic unit. The rock‐magnetic studies included stepwise thermal demagnetization of samples of intraformational mudstone clasts and a deformed shale lens, both of which occur within the lower part of the sandstone, and stepwise thermal and selective destructive demagnetization (SDD) of samples of the sandstone containing black sand laminae composed largely of opaque grains. In samples both from the claystone clasts and deformed shale lens two secondary components, one of modern normal polarity and one of Triassic normal polarity, were unambiguously identified, and a third CRM component of Triassic reversed polarity was tentatively identified. There is no evidence in samples of either the claystone clasts or deformed shale lens of a remanence acquired prior to deposition or to deformation, respectively. SDD, by means of which the small‐scale homogeneity of remanence within samples of the Lower Massive sandstone containing black sand laminae could be assessed, shows that each sample primarily contains a heterogeneous three‐dimensional mixture of Triassic normal and reversed components. The Triassic normal direction that is characteristic of the Lower Massive sandstone is a vector resultant of almost balanced proportions of the two nearly antiparallel components, averaging about 55 to 60% normal and 45 to 40% reversed. The local variability in both direction and intensity of remanence within and between individual black sand laminae confirms that acquisition of the remanence took place over a geologic time interval that spanned at least two and probably several polarity intervals and that, on a small scale, the remanence was sporadically acquired more or less randomly, probably in response to local conditions in the interstitial physicochemical environment that affected the growth of authigenic hematite. No primary component of remanence acquired at or soon after deposition could be identified. The remanence in the black sand‐bearing Lower Massive sandstone is largely carried by the black sand grains which, as determined from reflected‐light petrographic studies, are primarily martite (67%) and altered ilmenite grains (20%) composed of complex intergrowths of hematite and iron‐titanium minerals. These data strongly suggest that these grains, deposited initially as unaltered to only moderately altered magnetite and ilmenite, subsequently underwent oxidation during which they acquired their remanence.

Remote sensing data of SP Mountain and SP Lava flow in North-Central Arizona

Multifrequency airborne radar image data of SP Mountain [Official name of feature (U.S. Geological Survey, 1970)] and SP flow (and vicinity) in north-central Arizona were obtained in diverse viewing directions and direct and cross-polarization, then compared with surface and aerial photography, LANDSAT multispectral scanner data, airborne thermal infrared imagery, surface geology, and surface roughness statistics. The extremely blocky, basaltic andesite of SP flow is significantly brighter on direct-polarization K- band (0.9-cm wavelength) images than on cross-polarized images taken simultaneously. Conversely, for the longer wavelength (25 cm) L- band radar images, the cross-polarization image returns from SP flow are brighter than the direct-polarized image. This effect is explained by multiple scattering and the strong wavelength dependence of polarization effects caused by the rectilinear basaltic andesite scatters. Two distinct types of surface relief on SP flow, one extremely blocky, the other subdued, are found to be clearly discriminated on the visible and thermal wavelength images but are separable only on the longer wavelength L- band radar image data. The inability of the K- and X- (3- cm wavelength) band radars to portray the differences in roughness between the two SP flow surface units is attributed to the radar frequency dependence of the surface-relief scale, which, described as the Rayleigh criterion, represents the transition between quasispecular and primarily diffuse backscatter.

Geographic Variation in Eutamias quadrivittatus with Comments on the Taxonomy of Other Arizonan Chipmunks

Analyses indicate that two subspecies of the chipmunk Eutamias quadrivittatus are recognizable. The widely used name E. q. hopiensis is a syno- nym of E. q. quadrivittatus. A new name is proposed for the other subspecies. The cliff chipmunk in northwestern Arizona is Eutamias dorsalis grinnelli, not E. d. utahensis. The least chipmunk in eastern Arizona is Eutamias minimus operarius, with E. m. arizonensis a synonym of this subspecies. Chipmunks of the species Eutamias quadrivittatus consist of two groups: a large-sized, dark-colored form that usually is found in pine or spruce-fir forests of central and southern Colorado, northern New Mexico, northeastern Arizona, and western Oklahoma; and a small-sized, light-colored form that usually is found in open, juniper- pinyon woodlands among rocks in Utah, north-central Arizona, and western-most Colorado. The differences in size, both externally and cranially, are appreciable and probably are more significant than color, which may be quite variable. The zone of intergradation be- tween these groups is a geographically narrow one in western Colo- rado and northeastern Arizona (see Fig. 1). Analysis of chromosomes of the two groups shows no differences (Sutton and Nadler 1969:528) and according to White (1953b:621-622), the western group has a smaller baculum with a more distinct angle between the tip and shaft. The western group of chipmunks presently is called Eutamias quadrivittatus hopiensis, with the type locality at Keams Canyon, Navajo Co., Arizona. Unfortunately, however, specimens from Keams Canyon do not have the small size characteristic of the western pop- ulations and therefore the name hopiensis cannot be used for the western race. A detailed analysis of specimens from Keams Canyon,

Factors Affecting Forage Consumption by Cattle in Arizona Ponderosa Pine Forests

Management practices designed to increase multiple use values of ponderosa pine forests are being tested in Arizona (Brown et al. 1974). Some of these practices will increase herbage production (Clary 1975), but there is a question as to what extent cattle will consume the additional forage. Factors related to forage consumption need to be identified in evaluating possible impacts of forest overstory manipulations on grazing values. An earlier study on the Coconino Plateau in north-central Arizona found that distance to water, steepness and length of slope, access routes, forest density, season of use, range condition, floristic composition, and possibly rockiness influenced the manner in which pine-bunchgrass ranges were grazed (Glendening 1944). Slope steepness and distance upslope were important variables on uniform terrains in Montana, but the amount of rockiness was not (Mueggler 1965). In a Utah study, Cook (1966) concluded that although factors such as slope, distance to water below, percent palatable plants, and thickness of brush were correlated with utilization, no single factor could be used as a reliable index for predicting use. Young et al. (1967) found that forest density and understory vegetation influenced the distribution of forage utilization in northeastern Oregon. This note summarizes the results of a study conducted to define factors related to forage consumption by cattle on the Beaver Creek Watershed in north-central Arizona, and to provide insight as to how timber management practices will likely affect utilization of the range resource.

Breeding Birds of Riparian Woodland in South-Central Arizona

Riparian woodland habitats in the Southwest are extremely important breeding places, wintering areas, and corridors for migration of birds. These habitats are the least extensive in the region but they have the highest densities and diversities of avian species (Bottorff 1974, Carothers and Johnson 1975). Diversity of bird species has been correlated with diversity of foliage height in riparian habitats of the southwestern United States such as desert riparian, mesquite shrub, sycamore-cottonwood, and mixed deciduous habitats (Austin 1970, Cody 1974, MacArthur 1964, Carothers et al. 1974). In contrast, Carothers et al. (1974) found bird species diversity in homogeneous cottonwood plots on the upper Verde River in north-central Arizona not to be correlated with foliage height diversity. My objectives were to determine the density and distribution of breeding birds in two riparian woodland habitats (mesquite and cottonwood) on the lower Verde River and to examine the relationship between the vegetative structure of the habitats and the avian populations.

Identification of a Sinagua Agricultural Field by Aerial Thermography, Soil Chemistry, Pollen/Plant Analysis, and Archaeology

AbstractAerial thermograms of an area in north-central Arizona immediately to the north of Merriam Crater have revealed the existence of parallel arrays of alternating ridge and swale linear features in the ashfall zone of Sunset Crater. The patterns are not easily identified on simultaneously acquired panchromatic photographs. Pollen and soil analyses confirm the highly geometric pattern to be a previously unrecognized prehistoric agricultural field. Recovery of Sinagua sherds of known age found at nearby living sites and in the field indicates that the farming activity occurred between A.D. 1065 and 1250. After 700 years of abandonment, local plant succession for the field has not yet fully re-established the probable former shrub community, apparently due to differences in physical and chemical properties existing between field and nonfield soil areas, related perhaps to prehistoric agricultural practices.

Population Structure and Social Organization of Southwestern Riparian Birds

Breeding bird populations were studied on seven riparian woodland study plots in north-central Arizona. The densities of breeding birds varied from 193 to 847 pairs per 40 hectares. These differences were, in part, related to the vegetative structure of the habitat. Bird species diversity (BSD) was not correlated with foliage height diversity (FHD) in riparian habitats consisting of one major vegetational component (the cottonwood tree Populus fremontii ) where these habitats are bordered by agricultural fields. These areas supported the largest breeding bird populations (847, 612, 512, and 425 pairs per 40 hectares) while areas consisting of a mixed deciduous tree and shrub component ( Populus, Platanus, Salix, Acer, Fraxinus, Prosopis, etc. ) had smaller populations of breeding birds (322, 312, and 193 pairs per 40 hectares). On the mixed deciduous woodland areas the correlation between BSD and FHD was similar to what others have found in Eastern deciduous forests. The average weights of individual birds were significantly greater on the homogeneous cottonwood areas ( X ¯ = 46.4 g) than on the mixed deciduous areas ( X ¯ = 22.9 g). Data gathered indicate that two systems of social organization are being maintained. In areas of relatively low population density (mixed deciduous) 57% of the pairs maintained “class A” territories. On areas of relatively high population density (homogeneous cottonwood) only 22% of the pairs exhibited this form of spacing; here, most birds forage freely outside of the riparian habitat. We suggest that the differences in population density and average weights of birds found in the two habitat types are a result of the following: (i) relative productivity of areas adjacent to the riparian habitat, and (ii) degree of intra- and interspecific competition effected by avian populations found breeding in areas adjacent to the riparian habitat.

II. The Paria Plateau Survey

The Paria Plateau survey was conducted on, and adjacent to, the Paria Plateau in Coconino County in north-central Arizona by personnel of the Museum of Northern Arizona during the summers of 1967 and 1968 (Fig. 1). All of the surveyed area is located in the Arizona Strip District of northern Arizona, although unsurveyed portions of the Paria Plateau extend into southern Utah. The Plateau is situated approximately midway between Page, Arizona on the east, and Kanab, Utah on the west. The familiar Vermillion Cliffs seen from U.S. 89 enroute to the North Rim of the Grand Canyon form the southern escarpment of the Plateau. The western boundary of the surveyed area is defined by Coyote and House Rock valleys which also separate the Kaibab and the Paria plateaus. The Paria River constitutes the northeastern boundary of the Paria Plateau making it a naturally bounded region within the Colorado Plateau subarea.

Paleomagnetism of some Precambrian basaltic flows and red beds, Eastern Grand Canyon, Arizona

Lava flows and red sandstone beds near the middle of the Upper Precambrian Grand Canyon Series exhibit stable remanent magnetization. The beds are about 1000 m stratigraphically above rocks of the Grand Canyon Series for which paleomagnetic poles have been reported. All specimens were subjected to stepwise thermal (200°–700°C) or alternating field (25–5000 Oe) demagnetization for the determination of characteristic magnetization. The pole for two flows and an intercalated sandstone bed of the Cardenas Lavas of Ford, Breed and Mitchell (upper Unkar Group), is at 174.6W, 0.4N ( N = 10, K = 50, α 95 = 6.9°). The pole for a weathered zone developed across the Cardenas Lavas is at 167.8W, 49.4N ( N = 5, K = 79, α 95 = 8.6°). The pole for directly overlying sandstone of the Nankoweap Formation of Maxson is at 174.4E, 12.5N ( N = 6, K = 105, α 95 = 6.6°). These poles lie on or near, and appear to follow, part of an apparent polar wandering path recently proposed for the Precambrian of North America by Spall. If the fit is not accidental, little or no rotation has occurred between north-central Arizona and parts of the North American continent used to define the proposed path.

The Moenkopi Formation of North-Central Arizona: An Interpretation of Ancient Environments Based Upon Sedimentary Structures and Stratification Types

ABSTRACT In north-central Arizona, the Moenkopi Formation of Triassic age consists of generally unfossiliferous red mudstones, siltstones, gypsum, and sandstones that contain abundant sedimentary structures such as ripple marks, cross-stratification, ripple laminae, salt crystal casts, mud cracks, sole marks, parting lineation and core-and-shell structures. Three informal members were established for this study: the lower member, the lower massive sandstone, and the upper member. The lower member is interpreted to represent deposition in a tidal-flat environment based upon the following: flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding, bimodal distribution of ripple-laminae dips, parallel ripple marks dominant over cuspate ripple marks, gypsum beds and veins, salt crystal casts, and lack of channel deposits. The very fine grained lower massive sandstone can be divided into four units, which were formed by a transgression-regression of the sea. Wavy and ripple laminated beds in unit one were probably deposited in very shallow marine water. Medium-scale wedge-planar and trough sets of cross strata with mean dip directions to the southeast make up unit 2 and indicate megaripples formed by long-shore drift. Unit 3 consists of lenticular, wavy, podshaped beds that were created in water shallower than for unit 2. Continuous, large-scale, low-angle cross strata of uniform thickness and medium-scale wedge-planar and trough sets of cross strata characterize unit 4 and are typical of beach deposits. The significant sedimentary features in the upper member are unimodal distribution of ripple laminae dips, cuspate ripple marks dominant over parallel ripple marks, channel deposits with shallow-trough cross strata, increase in the number and thickness of sandstone and siltstone beds compared with the lower member; and vertebrate bones, tracks, and plant impressions. This suite of features indicates a flood-plain environment which was a continuation of the regression that started during lower massive time. Early in Moenkopi time, north-central Arizona was a tidal flat and sabkha. The sea to the west fluctuated east and west and finally transgressed over the entire area. As the sea regressed, a beach formed, and rivers flowing from the east deposited sediment on a westward-prograding flood plain. In some portions of the region, sabkhas existed for a short time following the regression. At the end of Moenkopi time, the entire area was a flood plain.

Age and Chemistry of Tertiary Volcanic Rocks in North-Central Arizona and Relation of the Rocks to the Colorado Plateaus

During late Miocene (14.8 m.y.) to early Pliocene (10.1 m.y.) time, local latite and widespread basaltic flows accumulated with associated continental sedimentary deposits in north-central Arizona. Some of these rocks were displaced and tilted by normal faults, and new drainage, now occupied in part by basalt flows of late Pliocene age (average 5 m.y., maximum of 6 m.y.), was established at the southern margin of the Colorado Plateaus. The time of faulting and uplift of the Colorado Plateaus in this region is thus bracketed between about 10.1 and 6 m.y. ago. Five analyzed basalts fall within the tholeiitic basalt field of the alkali-silica diagram and twenty are in the alkalic basalt field; in general, they are similar to other alkali-olivine basalts from the western United States.

Environments of Deposition of Moenkopi Formation in North-Central Arizona: ABSTRACT

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The Henderson Site: Colonial Hohokam in North Central Arizona a Preliminary Report*

AbstractIn October of 1969 the Prescott College Archaeological Survey contracted witli the Arizona State Museum, through the Statewide Archaeological Highway Salvage program, to excavate a ruin along the Agua Fria River. The ruin was within the right-of-way of State Road 169, just cast of Dewey, Arizona.Excavations yielded a complex series of superimposed Colonial Hohokam structures, a prehistoric canal, and artifacts and ceramics of the Santa Cruz Phase.

Infrared Scanning Images: An Archeological Application

Aerial infrared scanner images of an area near the Little Colorado River in north-central Arizona disclosed the existence of scattered clusters of parallel linear features in the ashfall area of Sunset Crater. The features are not obvious in conventional aerial photographs, and only one cluster could be recognized on the ground. Soil and pollen analyses reveal that they are prehistoric agricultural plots.

Root Grafting in Quercus Turbinella Greene

Apparent widespread self—grafting and intra—specific grafting roots of Quercus turbinella have been noted in north—central Arizona. Grafting occurred on roots varying in size from 0.1 inch to 1.5 inches in diameter and varying in depth below the soil surface from a few inches to over 25 ft. Cross sections of the grafts indicated sufficient fusion to allow translocation across the unions. Implications of the phenomenon are discussed.