Central North Africa Research Articles

Agronomic Performance of Elite Stem Rust Resistant Spring Wheat Genotypes and Association among Trial Sites in the Central and West Asia and North Africa Region

The new stem rust race Ug99 is an alarming threat to the wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production of the world for the very fact that it overcomes many of the known Sr genes including the most commonly used genes such as Sr31, Sr24, and Sr36. The wheat breeding program at the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) has distributed the first stem rust resistant spring wheat yield trials composed of 24 wheat genotypes for the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region to identify high yielding wheat genotypes, which can be recommended for direct release and/or parentage purposes by the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARSs). The additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) analysis of variance for grain yield (kg ha-1) of 24 wheat genotypes tested in 15 environments showed that wheat grain yield was significantly (p < 0.01) affected by environments (E), genotypes (G), and genotype × environment interaction (GEI). From the total sum of squares due to treatments (G + E + GEI), E contributed 90.1% and GEI accounted for 8.3% while G effect represented only 1.6%. According to AMMI2 estimate, Baasha-14 and Amir-2 with mean grain yield levels of 5168 and 5127 kg ha-1, respectively, are identified as the best genotypes with high yield potential across a wide range of environments. Based on correlation and clustering analysis among environments, the Ghab site in Syria (E7) is identified as the highest yielding and best correlated site and therefore it is recommended as a key location for evaluation of wheat germplasm yield potential in ICARDA's wheat breeding program. We recommend the high yielding and Ug99 resistant genotypes identified in this study for direct release as replacement of the susceptible varieties by the respective NARS and/or to be used as parents at ICARDA and by NARS collaborators.

In vitro conservation and cryopreservation of mature pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) germplasm

As genetic erosion of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) has been occurring in the Mediterranean, Central and West Asia and North Africa, experiments were conducted to conserve two cultivars (‘Atli’ and ‘Siirt’) of mature pistachio germplasm by assessing both medium- and long-term conservation techniques. In medium-term conservation, our results showed that it was feasible to conserve both cultivars in the form of either microshoots or encapsulated shoot apices up to 12 months at 4°C in the dark. As regards long-term conservation, encapsulation-dehydration and droplet-vitrification techniques were assessed for cryopreservation of cold-hardened and osmoprotected shoot apices of mature ‘Atli’ cultivar. Among the methods tested, 13.6% of regrowth was achieved with incubation of explants in the droplets of vitrification solution for 150 min at 0°C followed by direct immersion in liquid nitrogen (LN), rapidly thawed and then cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s (MS) medium containing 1 mg L−1 BA and 0.5 mg L−1 GA3. The developed droplet-vitrification technique appeared as a promising procedure for long-term preservation of shoot apices of mature pistachio germplasm. Moreover, assesment of genetic fidelity by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA analysis (RAPD) revealed out high levels of genetic stability between donor plant and cryopreserved plants (similarity indexes between 0.959 and 0.973) after they were subcultured for at least 3 months. The detected low level of genetic instability could be due to the toxic effect of PVS2 and regeneration phase. The optimized conservation techniques, especially slow growth storage, could be applied to preserve other Pistacia species.

Health Risks of Travelers With Medical Conditions—A Retrospective Analysis

Traveling the world may result in infection with tropical or other travel-associated diseases. This applies increasingly also to people with immune-compromising and other medical conditions, as well as to elderly individuals. To reduce exposure and susceptibility to health risks, there is a need for appropriate pre-travel advice for these particular groups of travelers. In this observational study, we analyzed the overall risk of health problems among travelers with underlying medical conditions who attended the University of Amsterdam's Academic Medical Center's (AMC) travel clinic from January to October 2010. Telephone questionnaires were administered to 345 travelers with underlying conditions and 100 healthy travelers. The most common underlying medical conditions studied included: (1) diabetes mellitus; (2) impaired immunity due to use of immune-suppressing medication; (3) reduced gastric barrier; and (4) HIV infection. The overall incidence of travel-related diseases (TRDs) was higher among those patients with underlying medical conditions compared to healthy travelers [incidence rate ratio (IRR) 2.26, 95% CI (1.29-3.98)]. Of all diseases reported, gastrointestinal disease, fever, and respiratory problems were reported most frequently. Travel to Central America, South Central Asia, Northeast Asia, and North Africa was associated with increased risk of contracting TRD. Hepatitis B protection was absent or unknown in 75% of these travelers. Travelers with medical conditions had a higher risk of obtaining TRD, predominantly gastrointestinal in nature.

Distributions and regional budgets of aerosols and their precursors simulated with the EMAC chemistry-climate model

Abstract. The new global anthropogenic emission inventory (EDGAR-CIRCE) of gas and aerosol pollutants has been incorporated in the chemistry general circulation model EMAC (ECHAM5/MESSy Atmospheric Chemistry). A relatively high horizontal resolution simulation is performed for the years 2005–2008 to evaluate the capability of the model and the emissions to reproduce observed aerosol concentrations and aerosol optical depth (AOD) values. Model output is compared with observations from different measurement networks (CASTNET, EMEP and EANET) and AODs from remote sensing instruments (MODIS and MISR). A good spatial agreement of the distribution of sulfate and ammonium aerosol is found when compared to observations, while calculated nitrate aerosol concentrations show some discrepancies. The simulated temporal development of the inorganic aerosols is in line with measurements of sulfate and nitrate aerosol, while for ammonium aerosol some deviations from observations occur over the USA, due to the wrong temporal distribution of ammonia gas emissions. The calculated AODs agree well with the satellite observations in most regions, while negative biases are found for the equatorial area and in the dust outflow regions (i.e. Central Atlantic and Northern Indian Ocean), due to an underestimation of biomass burning and aeolian dust emissions, respectively. Aerosols and precursors budgets for five different regions (North America, Europe, East Asia, Central Africa and South America) are calculated. Over East-Asia most of the emitted aerosols (precursors) are also deposited within the region, while in North America and Europe transport plays a larger role. Further, it is shown that a simulation with monthly varying anthropogenic emissions typically improves the temporal correlation by 5–10% compared to one with constant annual emissions.

Single-grain OSL chronologies for Middle Palaeolithic deposits at El Mnasra and El Harhoura 2, Morocco: Implications for Late Pleistocene human–environment interactions along the Atlantic coast of northwest Africa

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurements were made on individual, sand-sized grains of quartz from Middle Palaeolithic deposits at two cave sites (El Harhoura 2 and El Mnasra) on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. We were able to calculate OSL ages for 32 of the 33 samples collected from the Middle Palaeolithic deposits, including the earliest and latest Aterian levels at both sites. These ages reveal periods of occupation between about 110 and 95 ka (thousands of years ago), and at ∼75 ka. A late Middle Palaeolithic occupation of El Harhoura 2 is also recorded at ∼55 ka. Our single-grain OSL chronologies largely support previous age estimates from El Mnasra and other sites along the Atlantic coast of Morocco, but are generally more precise, reproducible and stratigraphically more coherent (i.e., fewer age reversals). We compare the single-grain ages for El Harhoura 2 and El Mnasra with those obtained from single- and multi-grain OSL dating of Middle Palaeolithic deposits in the nearby sites of Contrebandiers and Dar es-Soltan 1 and 2, and with records of past regional environments preserved in sediment cores collected from off the coast of northwest Africa. A conspicuous feature of the new chronologies is the close correspondence between the three identified episodes of human occupation and periods of wetter climate and expanded grassland habitat. Owing to the precision of the single-grain OSL ages, we are able to discern gaps in occupation during Marine Isotope Stages 5 and 4, which may represent drier periods with reduced vegetation cover. We propose that these climatic conditions can be correlated with events in the North Atlantic Ocean that exert a major control on abrupt, millennial-scale fluctuations between wet and dry periods in northwest and central North Africa.

Evidence from detrital zircons for recycling of Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic crust recorded in Paleozoic and Mesozoic sandstones of southern Libya

The geodynamic history of the Precambrian basement in central North Africa as well as the age and provenance of its sedimentary cover sequence are still poorly constrained. Here we present first detrital zircon ages (obtained by LA-SF-ICP–MS and SHRIMP) from Paleozoic and Mesozoic sandstones of the eastern Murzuq Basin, southern Libya, which unconformably overlie the Saharan Metacraton. Establishing the age and provenance of these sandstones has important implications for our understanding of the evolution of northern Gondwana during the Paleozoic, especially for reconstructions of paleo-source areas and transport paths. Detrital zircons from the sandstones show mainly early Paleozoic to Neoarchean ages with four main age populations, at 2750–2500 Ma (8%), 2200–1750 Ma (16%), 1060–920 Ma (18%), and 720–530 Ma (39%). About 13% of all concordant grains yield ages of 1600–1000 Ma. In addition, there are 9 zircon grains (0.7% of all concordant grains) with ages of 3600–2800 Ma. The presence of a high number of ca. 1 Ga zircons is enigmatic and their origin is controversial. Besides direct sourcing from ca. 1 Ga igneous rocks in eastern Chad and ca. 1 Ga igneous rocks along the southeastern margins of the Congo and Tanzania cratons, recycling of Neoproterozoic sediments containing ca. 1 Ga zircons is another alternative hypothesis to explain the presence of ca. 1 Ga zircons in the Paleozoic sedimentary sequence of central North Africa. The ubiquitous occurrence of ca. 1 Ga zircons in Paleozoic sediments of southern Libya provides insights into the correlation and paleotectonic arrangement of Gondwana-derived terranes, present, for example, in the eastern Mediterranean and in southwestern Europe. Current paleotectonic models of dextral terrane transport along the northern Gondwana margin during the early Paleozoic may need to be revised.

A Lagrangian analysis of the variation in moisture sources related to drier and wetter conditions in regions around the Mediterranean Basin

Abstract. Here, we describe our use of the Lagrangian 3-D FLEXPART model to investigate the variation in sources of moisture related to the drier and wetter conditions of the different regions that surround the Mediterranean Basin. We carried out seasonal analyses for the period from March 2000 to February 2005, and identified those years with the highest and lowest rates of precipitation by season, averaged over eight different continental regions. The variation in specific humidity along the 10-day backward trajectories of the particles identified over the target areas was tracked for the selected period, and the characteristics of the moisture sources were then compared between wetter and drier conditions by season. Although they only represented a relatively short period, the results suggest that in most of the years chosen, the moisture sources were more extensive and/or more intense during wetter periods. The contribution of the north Atlantic as a source of moisture is apparent for the Iberian Peninsula, for France and for Central North Africa. Otherwise, the Mediterranean Sea is the predominant source for Eastern North Africa, and for the Italian and Balkan Peninsulas. Local sources provide moisture for the Eastern Mediterranean and Western North Africa.

Indirect selection for grain yield in spring bread wheat in diverse nurseries worldwide using parameters locally determined in north-west Mexico

SUMMARYThe relationships of normalized water index three (NWI-3) and canopy temperature (CT) with grain yield in north-west Mexico were determined in a set of wheat lines planted in multi-location yield trials. Advanced wheat lines developed by The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) were included and tested internationally in the trials including the 24th Elite Spring Wheat Yield Trial (ESWYT), the 11th Semi-Arid Wheat Yield Trial (SAWYT) and the 11th High Temperature Wheat Yield Trial (HTWYT). In north-west Mexico, NWI-3, CT and grain yield were determined in three growing seasons (2006, 2007 and 2008) and three environments (well irrigated, water-stressed and high-temperature), while grain yield was measured at international locations in the same advanced lines of the 24th ESWYT, the 11th SAWYT and the 11th HTWYT . The CIMMYT database was used to obtain grain yield from worldwide nurseries. The mean grain yield ranged from 0·8 to 12·7 t/ha for the 24th ESWYT (59 international sites), from 0·6 to 8·2 t/ha for the 11th SAWYT (28 international sites) and from 0·4 to 7·5 t/ha for the 11th HTWYT (26 international sites). NWI-3 and CT for the advanced lines in the three yield trials measured in north-west Mexico in distinct environments showed significant associations with the grain yield from a few international locations (0·12–0·23 of sites). Locations from Central Asia and North Africa had the best associations with NWI-3 and CT. The lack of more associations may be due to either an interaction of other factors (low rainfall and limited irrigations), which affected yield performance, or few of the advanced lines were well adapted to local growing conditions at each testing site, or a combination of these factors. The present results indicate that NWI-3 and CT have limited potential to predict yield performance at international sites.

On the Iron Front: New Evidence from North-Central Africa

The advent of copper and iron metallurgy is one of the most fascinating debate taking place in sub-Saharan Africa archaeology today. Challenging data, that may be accurate or not, are usually ignored or dismissed without serious consideration. Sustained long-term research is nonetheless changing our views on the development of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa. This paper presents new evidence from North-Central Africa, in the Djohong area in the Cameroons, and Ndio area in the Central African Republic, both situated in the northeastern part of the Adamawa Plateau. Iron production activities are documented to have taken place as early as 3000–2500 BC. It is the case in habitation sites like Balimbe, Betume, and Bouboun, smelting sites like Gbabiri, and forge sites like Oboui and Gbatoro. The last two sites provide high resolution data on the spatial patterning of blacksmiths’ workshops dating from 2500 to 2000 BC.

Too Old? Remarks on New Evidence of Iron Working in North-Central Africa

Too Old? Remarks on New Evidence of Iron Working in North-Central Africa

Spoiling the Peace? Peace Process Exclusivity and Political Violence in North-Central Africa

Why are some peace processes accompanied by bloody political violence while others are not? Recent scholarship suggests that when factions fear that they will not benefit or will be excluded from a negotiated settlement these groups may protect their interests by sabotaging the peace process through violent tactics. We compare three peace processes in Africa – the negotiations to end armed struggles in Mali, the Western Sahara and Sudan – to investigate why spoilers arise in some contexts and not others. We argue that peace process exclusivity, that is negotiations between only some of the potential parties to a conflict, is more likely to breed violence than inclusive peace negotiations where all relevant groups have a seat at the bargaining table. A key to our argument is that the number and form of combatant groups is endogenous to peace process negotiations; as a result, exclusivity encompasses not just leaving out warring parties but also the exclusion of groups that might object to the terms of the peace should they be left out of the bargaining process. This is particularly important since many peace agreements include provisions regarding the distribution of government services, jobs, and representation that may indirectly impact the availability of those goods for other stakeholders, particularly non-combatant parties. While inclusive agreements may be harder to reach, our findings suggest that international organisations that participate in peace negotiations need to carefully consider the real-world trade-off between the ability to reach an agreement and the sustainability of that agreement over time.

African Financial Systems: A Review

diverse, with different regional economic blocs. The financial systems in these countries are as diverse as the countries. Reviewing the financial systems of such a heterogeneous group of countries presents a challenge. Therefore, to make the review more concise, we categorize the countries along geographic lines into four groups, namely, Arab North Africa, West Africa, East and Central Africa, and Southern Africa.1 This review covers, among other things, a brief review of the economies, central banks, deposit-taking banks, non-bank institutions, such as the stock markets, fixed income markets, and microfinance institutions in Africa. In this section, we present an executive summary of the African financial systems, highlighting some of the investment opportunities that exist, and then proceed with an in-depth review of the current state of the financial systems of the various sub-groups in Africa. In section II, we review the financial systems in North Africa. The financial systems in West Africa are reviewed in Section III, while those in Central and East Africa are reviewed in Section IV. In Section V, we examine the financial systems in Southern Africa. We conclude with a brief discussion of the risks that potential investors should be concerned about in Section VI.

Wet phases in the Sahara/Sahel region and human migration patterns in North Africa

The carbon isotopic composition of individual plant leaf waxes (a proxy for C(3) vs. C(4) vegetation) in a marine sediment core collected from beneath the plume of Sahara-derived dust in northwest Africa reveals three periods during the past 192,000 years when the central Sahara/Sahel contained C(3) plants (likely trees), indicating substantially wetter conditions than at present. Our data suggest that variability in the strength of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is a main control on vegetation distribution in central North Africa, and we note expansions of C(3) vegetation during the African Humid Period (early Holocene) and within Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 ( approximately 50-45 ka) and MIS 5 ( approximately 120-110 ka). The wet periods within MIS 3 and 5 coincide with major human migration events out of sub-Saharan Africa. Our results thus suggest that changes in AMOC influenced North African climate and, at times, contributed to amenable conditions in the central Sahara/Sahel, allowing humans to cross this otherwise inhospitable region.

Ammonites of Tethyan origin from the Ryazanian of the Russian platform: Genus Subalpinites Mazenot

The ammonite genus Subalpinites is known from the Berriasian of southern and central Europe, North Africa, Mangyshlak, and Ryazanian Stage of Central Russia. New species are described: S. gruendeli sp. nov., S. faurieformis sp. nov., S. remaneiformis sp. nov. These species and also S. krischtafowitschi Mitta characterize the lower subzone of the Riasanites rjasanensis Zone in the Moscow Region. The upper subzone of this zone in the Ryazan Region contained members of Subalpinites identified in open nomenclature.

Geochemistry of regional background aerosols in the Western Mediterranean

The chemical composition of regional background aerosols, and the time variability and sources in the Western Mediterranean are interpreted in this study. To this end 2002–2007 PM speciation data from an European Supersite for Atmospheric Aerosol Research (Montseny, MSY, located 40 km NNE of Barcelona in NE Spain) were evaluated, with these data being considered representative of regional background aerosols in the Western Mediterranean Basin. The mean PM 10, PM 2.5 and PM 1 levels at MSY during 2002–2007 were 16, 14 and 11 µg/m 3, respectively. After compiling data on regional background PM speciation from Europe to compare our data, it is evidenced that the Western Mediterranean aerosol is characterised by higher concentrations of crustal material but lower levels of OM + EC and ammonium nitrate than at central European sites. Relatively high PM 2.5 concentrations due to the transport of anthropogenic aerosols (mostly carbonaceous and sulphate) from populated coastal areas were recorded, especially during winter anticyclonic episodes and summer midday PM highs (the latter associated with the transport of the breeze and the expansion of the mixing layer). Source apportionment analyses indicated that the major contributors to PM 2.5 and PM 10 were secondary sulphate, secondary nitrate and crustal material, whereas the higher load of the anthropogenic component in PM 2.5 reflects the influence of regional (traffic and industrial) emissions. Levels of mineral, sulphate, sea spray and carbonaceous aerosols were higher in summer, whereas nitrate levels and Cl/Na were higher in winter. A considerably high OC/EC ratio (14 in summer, 10 in winter) was detected, which could be due to a combination of high biogenic emissions of secondary organic aerosol, SOA precursors, ozone levels and insolation, and intensive recirculation of aged air masses. Compared with more locally derived crustal geological dusts, African dust intrusions introduce relatively quartz-poor but clay mineral-rich silicate PM, with more kaolinitic clays from central North Africa in summer, and more smectitic clays from NW Africa in spring.

Evaporites, petroleum exploration, and the Cenozoic evolution of the Libyan shelf margin, central North Africa

The Mediterranean margin of Libya can be divided into three physiographic provinces, the Pelagian Shelf, the Sirt Embayment, and Offshore Cyrenaica. The petroleum potential of the Pelagian Shelf has been investigated but the Sirt Embayment and Offshore Cyrenaica are almost unexplored. During 2004–2005, new 2D pre-stack time-migrated seismic data were acquired and used to examine the large-scale structural, depositional, and salt tectonic features of the Libyan shelf and slope. The data cover approximately 38,000 line kilometers in water depths ranging from under 50 to over 3000 m. Cenozoic strata along much of the Libyan margin have a demonstrable progradational character punctuated by surfaces of erosion and margin failure. Within the Sirt Embayment the most visible retrogradational surface becomes seismically coincident with the top of Messinian unconformity. This retrogradational surface extends for over 700 km along strike and cuts both sides of the Sirt Embayment. Over 5000 cubic kilometers of material are missing from above this surface. There are two ideas for how retrogradation occurred. One idea relates the retrogradation to margin erosion during the Messinian salinity crisis. The other idea suggests that a large part of the Libyan margin experienced a cataclysmic failure during the late Miocene. Some existing models for offshore Libya have interpreted a widespread layer of halite lying within the Messinian which thickens basinward. This interpretation was probably based on the fact seismic reflection continuity was lost over much of the Sirt Embayment on older data beneath the top Messinian unconformity. The loss of good reflection character adversely affected exploration efforts by obscuring deep structures. Recent seismic data and a current understanding of salt behavior do not support the interpretation of thick halite within the Messinian section. Regional observations do not indicate any mobile halite present in the Sirt Embayment. There is a relatively thin, high amplitude and high velocity layer of non-halite evaporites (mainly anhydrite) which caps the Messinian section. Where this high amplitude and high velocity layer is absent or eroded, seismic continuity within the Messinian interval is restored. Limited available well data support this interpretation. True mobile halite is interpreted to exist in offshore Libya only in the far west of the Pelagian Shelf near the Tunisian border. Beneath the Pelagian Shelf are a series of tight contractional folds that are interpreted to be salt cored. Basins adjacent to the folds display geometries characteristic of salt withdrawal. The fold crests formed bathymetric highs which served as nucleation sites for nummulitic shoal development. These shoals are the principal reservoirs of the Pelagian Shelf.

Chemical composition of the essential oil of Hyssopus cuspidatus from Xinjiang, China

The genus Hyssopus (Labiatae), consisting of about 15 species, is distributed in Central Asia, South Europe, and North Africa. In China, there are only two species, Hyssopus cuspidatus Boiss and H. latilabiatus C. Y. Wu et H. w. Li, all growing in Xinjiang [1]. Both of them have been used as nectar source plants and medicinal plants. In Xinjiang, H. cuspidatus Boriss. has also been used in traditional Uygur medicine in the treatment of cough, asthma, bronchitis, trauma, and rheumatism [2, 3]. As the major Hyssopus resource for medical use in China, there are few reports on the essential oil of Hyssopus cuspidatus previously. We identified a total of 36 compounds in the hydrodistilled essential oil of Hyssopus cuspidatus from Xinjiang, China, with germacrene D (18.67%), hexadecanoic acid (17.53%), germacrene B (15.61%), (+)trans-caryophyllene (8.04%), and (+)spathulenol (4.11%) as the main components (Table 1). Further investigation of Hyssopus cuspidatus essential oil is still needed.

Testing the Effects of ISO Certification on Firm Productivity Differences Across Global Sub-Regions: Is There a Productivity Gap in Sub-Saharan Africa?

In this paper, we tested the statistical association between labor productivity of manufacturing firms and the rapid adoption of the International Standards Organization (ISO) certifications across global sub-regions. The objective of the research was two-fold: 1) to test whether innovation introduced by the adoption of ISO certification creates significant labor productivity premiums and whether certification is associated with a convergence to a world productivity frontier and, 2) to test the popularly held argument that sub-Sahara Africa lags the rest of the world in labor productivity. Using firm-level data from the World Bank Enterprise Surveys for 65 countries and applying panel data econometric estimation techniques, we tested for differences in mean labor productivity among manufacturing firms. The results show an economically and statistically significant association between standards certification and firm labor productivity. Comparisons of average labor productivity across global sub-regions failed to support the productivity convergence hypothesis and, importantly, contrary to expectations, Sub-Saharan Africa firms recorded better average productivity than those from East and Central Europe, Middle East and North Africa, and East Asia and Pacific regions. The claims of a productivity gap in sub-Sahara Africa found no support in our data.

Gene flow and genetic structure in the Galician population (NW Spain) according to Alu insertions

BackgroundThe most recent Alu insertions reveal different degrees of polymorphism in human populations, and a series of characteristics that make them particularly suitable genetic markers for Human Biology studies. This has led these polymorphisms to be used to analyse the origin and phylogenetic relationships between contemporary human groups. This study analyses twelve Alu sequences in a sample of 216 individuals from the autochthonous population of Galicia (NW Spain), with the aim of studying their genetic structure and phylogenetic position with respect to the populations of Western and Central Europe and North Africa, research that is of special interest in revealing European population dynamics, given the peculiarities of the Galician population due to its geographical situation in western Europe, and its historical vicissitudes.ResultsThe insertion frequencies of eleven of the Alu elements analysed were within the variability range of European populations, while Yb8NBC125 proved to be the lowest so far recorded to date in Europe.Taking the twelve polymorphisms into account, the GD value for the Galician population was 0.268. The comparative analyses carried out using the MDS, NJ and AMOVA methods reveal the existence of spatial heterogeneity, and identify three population groups that correspond to the geographic areas of Western-Central Europe, Eastern Mediterranean Europe and North Africa. Galicia is shown to be included in the Western-Central European cluster, together with other Spanish populations. When only considering populations from Mediterranean Europe, the Galician population revealed a degree of genetic flow similar to that of the majority of the populations from this geographic area.ConclusionThe results of this study reveal that the Galician population, despite its geographic situation in the western edge of the European continent, occupies an intermediate position in relation to other European populations in general, and Iberian populations in particular. This confirms the important role that migratory movements have had in the European gene pool, at least since Neolithic times. In turn, the MDS and NJ analyses place Galicia within the group comprised of Western-Central European populations, which is justified by the influence of Germanic peoples on the Galician population during the Middle Ages. However, it should also be noted that some of the markers analysed have a certain degree of differentiation, possibly due to the region's position as a 'cul-de-sac' in terms of Iberian population dynamics.

Incursion and range expansion in the bluetongue vector Culicoides imicola in the Mediterranean basin: a phylogeographic analysis

The bluetongue (BT) vector Culicoides imicola Kieffer (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) has undergone widespread range expansion across most of the Mediterranean basin, concomitant with the largest BT epizootic outbreaks on record. Knowledge of the substructure of this vector expansion would be useful for identifying specific source-expansion systems. To this end we analysed the haplotype diversity of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene in 273 C. imicola from 88 Mediterranean sites and outgroups. All the C. imicola haplotypes (n = 26) formed a single, distinct clade in comparison with haplotypes of four other species of the Imicola group from southern Africa, confirming C. imicola as a single phylospecies. Haplotype distribution showed extreme differentiation across the Mediterranean basin, with four common haplotypes each predominating in different areas. Eastern and western areas characterized by distinct BT incursions accounted for most of the molecular variance in haplotype composition. Shared common haplotypes identified one area of incursion and expansion encompassing the western half of the Mediterranean basin, with evidence of population growth, and another system encompassing Anatolian Turkey, the Aegean Islands and mainland Greece. A third area of range expansion was identified in the central Mediterranean, with a possible source in Algeria and unsampled parts of central North Africa. We conclude that the expansion of C. imicola in the Mediterranean basin consists of at least three incursions followed by expansions and that the western system experiences conditions promoting high population growth.