North Atlantic Water Masses Research Articles

The Effect of Southern Ocean Topography on the Global MOC and Abyssal Water Mass Distribution

Abstract We investigate the role of Southern Ocean topography and wind stress in the deep and abyssal ocean overturning and water mass composition using a suite of idealized global ocean circulation models. Specifically, we address how the presence of a meridional ridge in the vicinity of Drake Passage and the formation of an associated Southern Ocean gyre influence the water mass composition of the abyssal cell. Our experiments are carried out using a numerical representation of the global ocean circulation in an idealized two-basin geometry under varying wind stress and Drake Passage ridge height. In the presence of a low Drake Passage ridge, the overall strength of the meridional overturning circulation is primarily influenced by wind stress, with a topographically induced weakening of the middepth cell and concurrent strengthening of the abyssal cell occurring only after ridge height passes 2500 m. Passive tracer experiments show that a strengthening middepth cell leads to increased abyssal ventilation by North Atlantic water masses, as more North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) enters the Southern Ocean and then spreads into the Indo-Pacific. We repeat our tracer experiments without restoring in the high-latitude Southern Ocean in order to identify the origin of water masses that circulate through the Southern Ocean before sinking into the abyss as Antarctic Bottom Water. Our results from these “exchange” tracer experiments show that an increasing ridge height in Drake Passage and the concurrent gyre spinup lead to substantially decreased NADW-origin waters in the abyssal ocean, as more surface waters from north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) are transferred into the Antarctic Bottom Water formation region. Significance Statement The objective of this study is to investigate how topographic features in the Southern Ocean can affect the overall structure of Earth’s large-scale ocean circulation and the distribution of water masses in the abyssal ocean. We focus on the Southern Ocean because the region is of central importance for exchange between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Ocean basins and for CO2 and heat uptake into the abyssal ocean. Our results indicate that Southern Ocean topography plays a major role in the overall circulation by 1) controlling the direct transfer of abyssal waters from the Atlantic to the Indo-Pacific via its influence on the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and 2) controlling the coupling between the abyssal ocean and surface waters north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current via the Southern Ocean gyre.

Arctic phytoplankton microdiversity across the marginal ice zone: Subspecies vulnerability to sea-ice loss

Seasonal phytoplankton blooms are important Arctic phenomena, contributing to global primary production and biogeochemical cycling. The decline in sea-ice extent and thickness favors a longer open-water period with impacts on phytoplankton dynamics. Arctic net productivity is influenced by microalgae living associated with sea ice, with distinct species thought to be favored by ice-covered and ice-free waters. In this study, we investigated the phytoplankton community structure in Baffin Bay, a semi-enclosed sea where Arctic and North Atlantic water masses interact. We compared communities from the ice-free Atlantic-influenced eastern, the marginal ice zone, and the ice-covered Arctic-influenced western Baffin Bay. The community was characterized using 18S rRNA high-throughput amplicon sequencing and flow cytometry cell counting, and compared to environmental data collected during the Green Edge campaign. We sampled 16 stations grouped by sectors according to sea-ice cover. In the sectors associated with sea ice, phytoplankton formed a highly diverse community of smaller taxa, which contrasted with a low-diversity community in ice-free sectors, dominated by larger centric diatoms and Phaeocystis pouchetii adapted to high light/low nutrient conditions. Several phytoplankton species were flagged as indicators for the under-ice and marginal ice zone sectors, including ice-associated taxa such as the diatoms Melosira arctica and Pseudo-nitzschia seriata, but also subspecies representatives of the early-blooming alga Micromonas polaris and the cryptophyte Baffinella frigidus. The strong association of certain taxa with under-ice and marginal ice zone sectors, including Pterosperma sp., Chrysochromulina sp., Micromonas polaris, and B. frigidus, suggest that they might be indicators of diversity loss due to ongoing sea-ice changes in Baffin Bay. We report new intra-species variability of Micromonas polaris suggesting that seasonal specialists could wax and wane over the bloom and non-bloom periods, highlighting the need for detailed year-long studies and the importance of microdiversity when assessing the diversity and distribution of polar phytoplankton.

Multi-proxy record of the mid-Maastrichtian event in the European Chalk Sea: Paleoceanographic implications

The Cretaceous provides us with an excellent case history of ocean-climate-biota system perturbations. Such perturbations occurred several times during the Cretaceous, such as oceanic anoxic events and the end-Cretaceous mass extinction, which have been the subject of an abundant literature. Other perturbations, such as the mid-Maastrichtian Event (MME) remain poorly understood. The MME was associated with global sea-level rise, changes in climate and deep-water circulation that were accompanied by biotic extinctions including ‘true inoceramids’ and the demise of the Caribbean-Tethyan rudist reef ecosystems. So far, the context and causes behind the MME remain poorly studied. We conducted high-resolution integrated biotic, petrological and geochemical studies in order to fill this knowledge gap. We studied, in particular, carbonate Nd and Os isotopes, whole-rock Hg, C and N content, C and N isotopes in organic matter, S isotopes in carbonate-associated sulfate, along with C and O isotopes in foraminifera from the European Chalk Sea: the Polanówka UW-1 core from Poland and the Stevns-1 core from Denmark. Our data showed that sea-level rise of ∼50–100 m lasted around ∼2 Ma and co-occurred with anomalously high mercury concentration in seawater. Along with previously published data, our results strongly suggest that the MME was driven by intense volcanic–tectonic activity, likely related to the production of vast oceanic plateaus (LIP, Large Igneous Province). The collapse of reef ecosystems could have been the consequence of LIP-related environmental stress factors, including climate warming, presumably caused by emission of greenhouse gases, modification of the oceanic circulation, oceanic acidification and/or toxic metal input. The disappearance of the foraminifer Stensioeina lineage on the European shelf was likely caused by the collapse of primary production triggered by sea-level rise and limited amount of nutrient input. Nd isotopes and foraminiferal assemblages attest for changes in sea-water circulation in the European Shelf and the increasing contribution of North Atlantic water masses.

The biphasic life cycle of the non-spinose planktonic foraminifera is characterised by an aberrant coiling signature

The complete lifecycle of the planktonic foraminifera has continued to remain obscure. Benthic foraminifera exhibit an obligate alternation of generations between haploid gamonts and diploid agamonts, yet despite years of observation, the fusion of gametes to form a zygote, gamont or agamont has never been observed in the planktonic groups. Recent evidence from Neogloboquadrina pachyderma culture confirms that they do have a biphasic reproductive cycle and the agamonts may exhibit dimorphism in coiling direction. In this study we examine the morphology of normal and aberrant coiling tests of both N. pachyderma and N. incompta from three Arctic and North Atlantic water masses, to explore whether aberrant coiling is an indicator of a biphasic life cycle in the non-spinose planktonic foraminifera group as a whole. Using a Nano-Computed Tomography scanning approach, we morphologically compared the proloculus and growth trajectories of aberrant and normal coiling tests. Aberrant coiling tests were found to have a slightly larger proloculus and test size, consistent with a left coiling N. pachyderma agamont in the literature. This degree of dimorphism is insufficient to discriminate agamonts in the wild population and coiling direction remains their only distinguishable feature without further morphological investigation. The constant low-level aberrant coiling signature in a range of non-spinose planktonic foraminiferal genera implies that a biphasic life cycle is the principal mode of reproduction in the non-spinose planktonic group.

Instability of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Observations, Modelling and Relevance to Present and Future

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) has changed dramatically during the glacial–interglacial cycle. One leading hypothesis for these abrupt changes is thermohaline instability. Here, I review recent progress towards understanding thermohaline instability in both observations and modelling. Proxy records available seem to favor thermohaline instability as the cause of the abrupt climate changes during the glacial–deglacial period because the deep North Atlantic water mass and AMOC seemed to have changed before the North Atlantic climate. However, most fully Coupled General Circulation Models (CGCMs) so far seem to exhibit monostable AMOC, because (1) these models have failed to simulate abrupt AMOC changes unless they are forced by an abrupt change of external forcing and, (2) these models have shown opposite freshwater convergence from the current observations. This potential model bias in the AMOC stability leaves the model projection of the future AMOC change uncertain.

Development of a Correlated Fe‐Mn Crust Stratigraphy Using Pb and Nd Isotopes and Its Application to Paleoceanographic Reconstruction in the Atlantic

AbstractEight ferromanganese crust samples spanning the complete depth range of Tropic Seamount in the northeast Atlantic were analyzed for Pb and Nd isotopes to reconstruct water mass origin and mixing over the last 75 Ma. Pb isotopes were determined by laser ablation multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (LA‐MC‐ICP‐MS), which enables the rapid production of large, high spatial resolution data sets. This makes it possible to precisely correlate stratigraphy between different samples, compare contemporaneous layers, and create a composite record given the abundance of hiatuses in crusts. Pb and Nd isotope data show the influence of various oceanic and continental end‐members in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. This reflects its evolution from a restricted, isolated basins in the Late Cretaceous with influxes from the Tethys Ocean, to an increasingly well‐mixed, large‐scale basin, with a dominant Southern Ocean signature until the Miocene. Less radiogenic Nd isotope signatures suggest Labrador Sea Water influenced the northeast Atlantic basin as early as 17–15 Ma, flowing through a northern route such as the Charlie‐Gibbs Fracture Zone. Pb and Nd isotopes highlight the increasing influence of Saharan eolian dust input about 7 Ma, imparting a less radiogenic excursion to the binary mixing between North Atlantic water masses and riverine discharge from West and Central Africa. This highlights the influence of eolian dust input on the open ocean Pb and Nd budget and supports an early stage of North African aridification in the Late Miocene. This signature is overprinted about 3 Ma to the present by a strong North Atlantic Deep Water signature following the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation.

Seismic stratigraphic framework and depositional history for Cretaceous and Cenozoic contourite depositional systems of the Mozambique Channel, SW Indian Ocean

This study describes previously unrecognized contourite depositional systems (CDSs) in the Mozambique Channel which constrain palaeoceanographic models for this area. The stratigraphic stacking patterns record nine seismic units (SU1 to SU9) separated by eight major discontinuities (a to h, oldest to youngest). Key seismic markers in CDS evolutionary history occur during Aptian-Albian (~122 Ma), late Cenomanian (94 Ma), early (38.2–36.2 Ma) and late (25–23 Ma) Oligocene, and early-middle Miocene (~17–15 Ma) epochs. These record onset (~122 to 94 Ma), growth (94 to 25–23 Ma), maintenance (25–23 to 17–15 Ma), and burial (17–15 Ma to the actual time) stages for CDSs. CDSs first develop during the onset stage which coincides with the opening and deepening of the African-Southern Ocean gateway (at 122 and 100 Ma, respectively). The growth stage, beginning in the late Cenomanian (94 Ma), correlates with the opening and deepening of the Equatorial Atlantic gateway. During the growth stage, two major shifts in sedimentary stacking pattern occur which coincide with palaeoceanographic changes during the early (38.2–36.2 Ma) and late (25–23 Ma) Oligocene. These in turn coincide with the onset and local enhancement of Antarctic water masses. CDS growth continued until the early-middle Miocene during the maintenance stage (~17–15 Ma). Most CDS growth ceased at the end of the maintenance stage. Circulation of the North Atlantic water mass into the Southern Hemisphere led to a deepening of Antarctic water masses in the area.

Frenulate siboglinids at high Arctic methane seeps and insight into high latitude frenulate distribution.

Frenulate species were identified from a high Arctic methane seep area on Vestnesa Ridge, western Svalbard margin (79°N, Fram Strait) based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (mtCOI). Two species were found: Oligobrachia haakonmosbiensis, and a new, distinct, and undescribed Oligobrachia species. The new species adds to the cryptic Oligobrachia species complex found at high latitude methane seeps in the north Atlantic and the Arctic. However, this species displays a curled tube morphology and light brown coloration that could serve to distinguish it from other members of the complex. A number of single tentacle individuals were recovered which were initially thought to be members of the only unitentaculate genus, Siboglinum. However, sequencing revealed them to be the new species and the single tentacle morphology, in addition to thin, colorless, and ringless tubes indicate that they are juveniles. This is the first known report of juveniles of northern Oligobrachia. Since the juveniles all appeared to be at about the same developmental stage, it is possible that reproduction is either synchronized within the species, or that despite continuous reproduction, settlement, and growth in the sediment only takes place at specific periods. The new find of the well‐known species O. haakonmosbiensis extends its range from the Norwegian Sea to high latitudes of the Arctic in the Fram Strait. We suggest bottom currents serve as the main distribution mechanism for high latitude Oligobrachia species and that water depth constitutes a major dispersal barrier. This explains the lack of overlap between the distributions of northern Oligobrachia species despite exposure to similar current regimes. Our results point toward a single speciation event within the Oligobrachia clade, and we suggest that this occurred in the late Neogene, when topographical changes occurred and exchanges between Arctic and North Atlantic water masses and subsequent thermohaline circulation intensified.

Limited influence of basalt weathering inputs on the seawater neodymium isotope composition of the northern Iceland Basin

Radiogenic neodymium (Nd) isotopes have been widely used as a proxy for tracing present and past water masses and ocean circulation, yet relatively few data exist for seawater from the important deep water formation area around Iceland. We have analyzed the dissolved seawater Nd isotope compositions (expressed as ƐNd) of 71 seawater samples, as well as Nd concentrations [Nd] of 38 seawater samples, collected at full water column profiles from 18 stations in the shelf area off the southern coast of Iceland. The goal of this work was to determine to what extent weathering inputs from Icelandic basalts, which are characterized by a distinctly radiogenic ƐNd signature within the North Atlantic, contribute to the Nd isotope and concentration signatures of water masses in the northern Iceland Basin.Radiogenic ƐNd values of up to −3.5 and elevated concentrations of up to 21 pmol/kg compared to nearby open ocean sites were found in surface waters at shallow sites closest to shore and to river mouths of Iceland. This documents partial dissolution of highly radiogenic basaltic particles, which are transported northwards by the coastal currents. A comparable signal is not observed, however, in offshore surface waters likely as a result of the advection of surface currents mainly directed onshore, thus isolating these sites from Icelandic weathering contributions. The dominance of Subpolar Mode Waters and Intermediate Water unaffected by Icelandic contributions in the offshore study area is supported by unradiogenic ƐNd signatures between −15 and −12.In agreement with hydrographic data, highly radiogenic bottom waters at one site on the Iceland-Faroe Ridge (ƐNd = −7.5) reveal the presence of almost pure Iceland Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) near its formation site further to the east. In bottom waters of all deeper offshore sites, the combination of depleted Nd concentrations and similar ƐNd values (averaging at ≃−11.75 for the R/V Poseidon data and ≃−11 for the R/V Thalassa data) confirms the rapid entrainment of Atlantic mid-depth and deep waters into the overflow waters, which is accompanied by near bottom Nd removal via particle scavenging. Overall, our findings demonstrate that at present, apart from the radiogenic isotope signature of ISOW itself, the direct contribution of radiogenic Nd originating from weathering of Iceland basalts to the water column of the Iceland Basin is limited. This supports the reliable application of ƐNd values to trace changes in the mixing of open North Atlantic water masses (including ISOW).This article is part of a special issue entitled: “Cycles of trace elements and isotopes in the ocean – GEOTRACES and beyond” - edited by Tim M. Conway, Tristan Horner, Yves Plancherel, and Aridane G. González.

Dinoflagellate cyst paleoecology during the Pliocene–Pleistocene climatic transition in the North Atlantic

Dinoflagellate cysts (dinocysts) are widely used as tracers of sea surface conditions in late Quaternary marine records. However, paleoenvironmental reconstructions across the Pliocene–Pleistocene climatic transition and beyond are limited because the hydrologic conditions influencing assemblage compositions may not have a modern analogue, and the ecological optima of extinct dinocyst species are not well known. From a study of two cored sites in the central and eastern North Atlantic, we bypass these issues by statistically analyzing the variations in dinocyst assemblage composition and comparing the results directly to paleoecological parameters (δ18Obulloides, δ18Osalinity, and geochemical proxies for sea surface temperature [SST]) derived from the planktonic foraminifer Globigerina bulloides recovered from the same samples as the dinocysts. Through canonical correspondence analysis we demonstrate the co-variation of seasonality and dinocyst paleoproductivity. We show that Pyxidinopsis braboi is a cold tolerant species with an optimum SST between 12 and 14°C. We extend the use of Nematosphaeropsis labyrinthus as an indicator of transitional climatic conditions to the Pliocene, we offer evidence for the correlation of Bitectatodinium tepikiense and Filisphaera microornata to high seasonality, and we reiterate an apparent link between Spiniferites mirabilis and eastern North Atlantic water masses. Finally, we confirm that Habibacysta tectata is cold-tolerant rather than a strictly cold-water indicator, that Operculodinium? eirikianum is a cold-intolerant species favoring outer neritic environments, and that Ataxiodinium confusum and Invertocysta lacrymosa are both warm-water species.

Sverdrup critical depth and the role of water clarity in Norwegian Coastal Water

Abstract The critical depth concept was first recognized by Gran and Braarud (1935). During summer, in the Bay of Fundy, they observed an unexpected no bloom situation. Their interpretation was that high amounts of detritus of terrestrial origin caused too murky water and insufficient light for the tidally mixed phytoplankton. Almost 20 years later, this was elaborated by Sverdrup (1953) into a hypothesis for the initiation of the spring bloom in the North Atlantic Water (NAW) masses. Since then, variations in mixed layer depth have been a key in phytoplankton modelling. As illustrated by the study of Gran and Braarud, variation in the non-phytoplankton light attenuation coefficient is also a key to understand phytoplankton bloom conditions. Due to lack of accurate parameterizations, however, non-phytoplankton light attenuation is often assumed invariant in phytoplankton modelling. Here, I report spatial variation in a proxy for the pre-bloom light attenuation in Norwegian Coastal Water (NCW). It is shown that this variation can be partially accounted for by variations in salinity and dissolved oxygen. The light attenuation coefficient at 440 nm increased by 0.041 and 0.032 m−1 with drops in salinity and dissolved oxygen of 1PSU and 1 ml O2 l−1, respectively. Consequences for the euphotic depth, Sverdrup critical depth, and the nutricline depth are discussed. I conclude that phytoplankton modelling, particularly across coastal and oceanic waters, such as NCW and NAW, needs to account for variations in the non-phytoplankton light attenuation and that salinity might be a useful proxy for regional parameterizations.

Biogeochemical cycling of cadmium isotopes along a high-resolution section through the North Atlantic Ocean

Cadmium (Cd) is a bioactive trace element in the oceans, with a nutrient-like distribution that closely matches dissolved phosphate. Seawater-dissolved stable Cd isotope ratios (δ114Cd) are a relatively new parameter, which show much promise for furthering our understanding of the biogeochemical cycling of Cd in the oceans. Here we present a high-resolution paired section of dissolved Cd concentrations and dissolved δ114Cd from 21 open-ocean stations along the US GEOTRACES GA03 transect through the North Atlantic Ocean. Dissolved Cd concentrations along the section are strongly influenced by water-mass distribution and the cycling of Cd. The highest dissolved Cd concentrations (400–540pmolkg−1) are associated with Antarctic-sourced water masses, whilst biological uptake in the surface ocean results in a strong vertical gradient in dissolved Cd towards the surface, reaching as low as 0.03pmolkg−1 in western surface waters. Dissolved δ114Cd is also characterized by a vertical gradient from ∼+0.2‰ in the deep ocean to +2‰ to +5‰ in the Cd-depleted surface ocean (relative to NIST SRM 3108). This variability in δ114Cd can be ascribed to mixing of Antarctic and North Atlantic water masses, together with fractionation due to in situ biological uptake of light Cd in the very surface ocean. Subtle deviations from this overall pattern of dissolved Cd concentration and dissolved δ114Cd are observed within low-oxygen waters off North Africa, where a dissolved Cd deficit relative to phosphate is associated with higher dissolved δ114Cd values. Together with elevated particulate Cd and Ba, this suggests that Cd sulfide precipitation is occurring within the water column of the North Atlantic, constituting a potentially important sink for isotopically light Cd. Additionally, the first measurements of dissolved δ114Cd within a hydrothermal plume at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge show that Cd is scavenged from the dissolved phase, leaving the remnant dissolved Cd isotopically heavier. Constraining the significance of these marine sinks for dissolved Cd is important, not only for our understanding of the marine biogeochemical cycling of Cd in the modern oceans, but also for the successful application of the microfossil Cd/Ca proxy and the development of δ114Cd as a tracer for past-ocean biogeochemical cycling.

A first transect of 236U in the North Atlantic Ocean

In this study the first comprehensive dataset of 236U in the North Atlantic Ocean is presented. 236U/238U ratios and 236U concentrations are determined in about 70 seawater samples collected from 9 depth profiles along a transect through the Northwest Atlantic Ocean during the first two legs of the GEOTRACES cruise GA02 in 2010. The cruise track was designed to follow the path of the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) from its formation region to the deep parts of the western Atlantic Ocean basins. Our results show that there is a strong North to South and surface to deep ocean gradient spanning a broad range of 236U/238U, from (44±15)×10−12 to (1477±91)×10−12 that correlates well with the distribution of water masses in this region. All measured ratios are above the theoretical pre-anthropogenic levels of 10−13 to 10−14, showing that the whole transect is dominated by anthropogenic 236U. Based on the calculated 236U inventories the 236U inputs of global fallout and direct releases from nuclear reprocessing plants could be constrained to a range from 1000 to 1400kg and from 115 to 250kg of 236U, from the two sources, respectively. Our results show that the 236U/238U atomic ratio can be used as a marker of North Atlantic water masses: with high ratios (>1000×10−12) characterizing northern water masses (LSW and DSOW); and lowest ratios (50–400×10−12) corresponding to the increasing influence of AABW and AAIW.

Living planktonic foraminifera in the Fram Strait (Arctic): absence of diel vertical migration during the midnight sun

The timing of vertical migration in planktonic foraminifera (ex. ontogenetic, diel) is still an open debate. This work aims to investigate the diel vertical migration (DVM) of Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (N. pachyderma) and Turborotalitaquinqueloba (T. quinqueloba) in the Arctic during the midnight sun. N. pachyderma and T. quinqueloba dominate the total assemblage in the cold Polar Water and warmer North Atlantic Water masses, respectively. Foraminifera were collected at several depths along the Fram Strait. Afterwards sampling was performed at the same station for 24 h at continuous and discrete time intervals. Results show no evidence of planktonic foraminifera DVM since there was no significant variability in the abundance and size distribution during the 24-h collection period. This finding provides information to improve the interpretation of foraminifera in paleoclimatic works. This is especially relevant in the Fram Strait as paleoclimatic studies in this region are fundamental to investigating the history of the Atlantic water inflow into the Arctic Ocean.

Estimated strength of the Atlantic overturning circulation during the last deglaciation

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation affects the latitudinal distribution of heat, and is a key component of the climate system. Proxy reconstructions, based on sedimentary 231 Pa= 230 Th ratios and the difference between surface- and deep-water radiocarbon ages, indicate that during the last glacial period, the overturning circulation was reduced during millennial-scale periods of cooling 1‐5 . However, much debate exists over the robustness of these proxies 6‐8 . Here we combine proxy reconstructions of sea surface and air temperatures and a global climate model to quantitatively estimate changes in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation during the last glacial period. We find that, relative to the Last Glacial Maximum, the overturning circulation was reduced by approximately 14 Sv during the cold Heinrich event 1. During the Younger Dryas cold event, the overturning circulation was reduced by approximately 12 Sv, relative to the preceding warm interval. These changes are consistent with qualitative estimates of the overturning circulation from sedimentary 231 Pa= 230 Th ratios. In addition, we find that the strength of the overturning circulation during the Last Glacial Maximum and the Holocene epoch are indistinguishable within the uncertainty of the reconstruction. The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is an important feature of the Earth’s climate system. It is characterized by northward-flowing water masses at the surface ocean, deepwater formation in the North Atlantic and southward-flowing water masses in the intermediate to deep ocean. This overturning cell is complemented by an underlying, generally weaker, reversed overturning cell that originates in the Southern Ocean. In the following, we use AMOC to refer only to the upper overturning cell. Owing to the large heat capacity of water, the northwardflowing near-surface waters contribute effectively to the heat transport from the tropics to the mid- and high latitudes and therefore affect the regional climate around the North Atlantic 9,10 . Hence, changes of the AMOC strength can substantially influence climate in the north, especially in Europe. The depth of the southward-flowing waters and the strength of the circulation have changed in the past. During the last glacial period, abrupt warming events of several degrees within a few decades followed by slower cooling were detected in Greenland ice cores 11 . As effects of the so-called DansgaardOeschger events were found far beyond the Greenland ice sheet 1214 with patterns reminiscent of varying inter-hemispheric heat distribution 15,16 , they are believed to be the result of rapid changes of the AMOC strength 17 . Other examples of a reduction or even a complete shutdown of the

Observed acidification trends in North Atlantic water masses

Abstract. The lack of observational pH data has made it difficult to assess recent rates of ocean acidification, particularly in the high latitudes. Here we present a time series that spans over 27 yr (1981–2008) of high-quality carbon system measurements in the North Atlantic, which comprises fourteen cruises and covers the important water mass formation areas of the Irminger and Iceland Basins. We provide direct quantification of acidification rates in upper and intermediate North Atlantic waters. The highest rates were associated with surface waters and with Labrador Sea Water (LSW). The Subarctic Intermediate and Subpolar Mode Waters (SAIW and SPMW) showed acidification rates of −0.0019 ± 0.0001 and −0.0012 ± 0.0002 yr−1, respectively. The deep convection activity in the North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre injects surface waters loaded with anthropogenic CO2 into lower layers, provoking the remarkable acidification rate observed for LSW in the Iceland Basin (−0.0016 ± 0.0002 yr−1). An extrapolation of the observed linear acidification trends suggests that the pH of LSW could drop 0.45 units with respect to pre-industrial levels by the time atmospheric CO2 concentrations reach ~775 ppm. Under circulation conditions and evolution of CO2 emission rates similar to those of the last three decades, by the time atmospheric CO2 reaches 550 ppm, an aragonite undersaturation state could be reached in the cLSW of the Iceland Basin, earlier than surface SPMW.

A model study of the seasonal and long–term North Atlantic surface <i>p</i>CO<sub>2</sub> variability

Abstract. A coupled biogeochemical-physical ocean model is used to study the seasonal and long–term variations of surface pCO2 in the North Atlantic Ocean. The model agrees well with recent underway pCO2 observations from the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) in various locations in the North Atlantic. Some of the distinct seasonal cycles observed in different parts of the North Atlantic are well reproduced by the model. In most regions except the subpolar domain, recent observed trends in pCO2 and air–sea carbon fluxes are also simulated by the model. Over the longer period between 1960–2008, the primary mode of surface pCO2 variability is dominated by the increasing trend associated with the invasion of anthropogenic CO2 into the ocean. We show that the spatial variability of this dominant increasing trend, to first order, can be explained by the surface ocean circulation and air–sea heat flux patterns. Regions with large surface mass transport and negative air–sea heat flux have the tendency to maintain lower surface pCO2. Regions of surface convergence and mean positive air–sea heat flux such as the subtropical gyre and the western subpolar gyre have a higher long–term surface pCO2 mean. The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) plays a major role in controlling the variability occurring at interannual to decadal time scales. The NAO predominantly influences surface pCO2 in the North Atlantic by changing the physical properties of the North Atlantic water masses, particularly by perturbing the temperature and dissolved inorganic carbon in the surface ocean. We show that present underway sea surface pCO2 observations are valuable for both calibrating the model, as well as for improving our understanding of the regionally heterogeneous variability of surface pCO2. In addition, they can be important for detecting any long term change in the regional carbon cycle due to ongoing climate change.

Testing the extraction of past seawater Nd isotopic composition from North Atlantic deep sea sediments and foraminifera

Neodymium isotopes provide a paleoceanographic proxy for past deep water circulation and local weathering changes and have been measured on various authigenic marine sediment components, including fish teeth, ferromanganese oxides extracted by acid-reductive leaching, cleaned foraminifera, and foraminifera with Fe-Mn oxide coatings. Here we compare Nd isotopic measurements obtained from ferromanganese oxides leached from bulk sediments and planktonic foraminifera, as well as from oxidatively-reductively cleaned foraminiferal shells from sediment cores in the North Atlantic. Sedimentary volcanic ash contributes a significant fraction of the Nd when the ferro-manganese (Fe-Mn) oxide coatings are leached from bulk sediments. Reductive leachates of marine sediments from North Atlantic core tops near Iceland, or directly downstream from Iceland-Scotland Overflow Waters, record ɛNd values that are significantly higher than seawater, indicating that volcanic material is easily leached by acid-reductive methods. The ɛNd values from sites more distal to Iceland are similar to modern seawater values, showing little contamination from Iceland-derived volcanogenic material. In all comparisons, core top planktonic foraminifera ɛNd values more closely approximate modern deep seawater than the bulk sediment reductive leached value suggesting that the foraminifera provide a route toward quantifying the Nd isotopic signature of deep North Atlantic water masses.

Trends of anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> storage in North Atlantic water masses

Abstract. A high-quality inorganic carbon system database, spanning over three decades (1981–2006) and comprising of 13 cruises, has allowed the applying of the φC°T method and coming up with estimates of the anthropogenic CO2 (Cant) stored in the main water masses of the North Atlantic. In the studied region, strong convective processes convey surface properties, like Cant, into deeper ocean layers and grants this region an added oceanographic interest from the point of view of air-sea CO2 exchanges. Generally, a tendency for decreasing Cant storage rates towards the deep layers has been observed. In the Iberian Basin, the North Atlantic Deep Water has low Cant concentrations and negligible storage rates, while the North Atlantic Central Water in the upper layers shows the largest Cant values and the largest annual increase of its average concentration (1.13 ± 0.14 μmol kg−1 yr−1). This unmatched rate of change in the Cant concentration of the warm upper limb of the Meridional Overturning Circulation decreases towards the Irminger basin (0.68 ± 0.06 μmol kg−1 yr−1) due to the lowering of the buffering capacity. The mid and deep waters in the Irminger Sea show rather similar Cant concentration rates of increase (between 0.33 and 0.45 μmol kg−1 yr−1), whereas in the Iceland basin these layers seem to have been less affected by Cant. Overall, the Cant storage rates in the North Atlantic subpolar gyre during the first half of the 1990s, when a high North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) phase was dominant, are ~48% higher than during the 1997–2006 low NAO phase that followed. This result suggests that a net decrease in the strength of the North Atlantic sink of atmospheric CO2 has taken place during the present decade. The changes in deep-water ventilation are the main driving processes causing this weakening of the North Atlantic CO2 sink.

Arctic vs. North Atlantic water mass exchanges in Fram Strait from Pb isotopes in sedimentsThis article is one of a series of papers published in this Special Issue on the theme Polar Climate Stability Network.

Surface sediment samples (n = 10), collected between Spitzbergen and Greenland, and two cores raised east (C04) and west (C16) from Fram Strait were analyzed for their chemical and isotopic (Pb) compositions to trace the source of sediments and water masses exchanging between the Arctic and the North Atlantic oceans. In surface sediments, variable major and trace element concentrations suggest variations in both the mineralogy (carbonate and quartz dilution of other silicate minerals) and source regions of detrital supplies, based on Th/Zr and, to a lesser extent, on Th/U ratios. Each core site shows specific but nearly constant Th/Zr ratios, indicating homogeneous source supplies. At both core sites, Pb concentrations and isotopic compositions display similar patterns: homogeneous low Pb and radiogenic crustal signals below 5–10 cm, contrasting with high Pb and less radiogenic anthropogenic inputs at core-tops. However, the differing pre-anthropogenic Pb isotopic ratios in C04 and C16 confirm the involvement of distinct source supplies east and west of Fram Strait. We suggest that this isotopic specificity is mainly owing to inputs of material carried from northwestern Europe by the North Atlantic water mass and from the Laptev Sea by the Transpolar Drift, respectively. Some material from the Greenland margin and possibly from the North Atlantic Ocean may reach this zone as well. Sediments from the western Arctic are not significantly transported into the Fram Strait area, suggesting that the Canadian and the Eurasian basins remained decoupled, at least during the time span of the cored sediments (∼2000 years).