Gender Equality Norms Research Articles

The concept of gender equality and manifestations of gender inequality: international legal aspect

The article describes the concept, essence and elements of “gender equality” and “gender”. Attention is paid to the interpretation of the term “gender” provided by specialized agencies and relevant structures of the United Nations (UN), in particular, the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). The attention is focused on the provisions of the national legislation of Ukraine, in particular, the Law of Ukraine on Ensuring Equal Rights and Opportunities for Women and Men. The author characterizes common forms of gender discrimination (sexism, sexual harassment and assault, cyberviolence against women and girls, etc.) It is emphasized that in the science of international law the issue of theoretical definition of the concept of “gender” has not been studied at the doctrinal level. In writing this article, the author applied the systematic method to analyze the genesis and further evolution of gender equality norms; the formal-logical method was used to analyze the legal framework in the field of gender equality; the axiological method was used to characterize the widespread forms of gender discrimination. It is noted that gender equality is a cross­cutting idea of fundamental human rights. The equal right of men and women to enjoy all human rights is one of the fundamental principles recognized by international law and enshrined in the main international human rights treaties. It was councluded that the development of a universal concept of the term “gender” at the international level will contribute to an increase in the level of human rights protection. It is stated that gender inequality is not a women’s problem. Explicit or implicit prejudice, barriers to education and employment, as well as pay gaps, harm communities and hold back economies. Gender mainstreaming ensures higher quality program development and legislative work and greater significance to society, as it allows policy to respond more effectively to the needs of all citizens -women and men, girls and boys.

"You Need to be Able to Stand Up for What is Right": MTV Shuga Naija's Transformative Impact on Youth Attitudes Toward Sexual Violence in Nigeria.

In Nigeria, approximately 10% of women of reproductive age report experiencing sexual violence in the past year, with potentially enduring health and social consequences. The effects can be especially severe for younger women and adolescents. MTV Shuga Naija utilizes an entertainment-education TV serial drama to promote gender equality and challenge norms around sexual violence. Using a two-wave panel survey of Nigerian youth (574 females; 317 males) aged 15 to 24 years, this study explores the impact of MTV Shuga Naija on disclosing experiences of sexual violence, reducing stigma, and fostering dialogue. Baseline data were collected in person, while endline data were collected by telephone due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The survey, informed by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), examined shifts in self-reported sexual harassment and attitudes toward victims of sexual violence. A doubly robust, difference-in-differences (DID) analysis compares changes in outcomes in treatment versus comparison areas, adjusting for observed and unobserved differences and using inverse probability weighting to enhance the precision of impact estimates. DID models show significant attitude shifts and increased disclosure of sexual violence among youth exposed to MTV Shuga Naija. Agreement with victim-blaming statements dropped significantly for both men and women in treatment versus comparison areas. However, contrary to hypotheses, respondents in comparison areas were more likely to discuss sexual violence with family, although the context and content of these discussions could not be examined. This study therefore confirms that MTV Shuga Naija's entertainment-education effectively improves attitudes and behaviors concerning sexual violence. Even so, victim-blaming norms and experiences of sexual violence remain prevalent. While the program has made progress in addressing this sensitive issue in Nigeria, further research is needed to improve family and community dialogues and to enhance support for victims.

Professional's Views on the 'Nordic Paradox' in a Low Intimate Partner Violence Prevalence Country.

The apparently contradictory co-existence of high levels of gender equality and intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) found in Nordic countries has been termed the Nordic Paradox. The aim of this study was to examine how the Nordic Paradox is discussed and explained by Spanish professionals working in the IPVAW field. Five focus groups (n = 19) and interviews with key informants (n = 10) were conducted. Four main categories of possible explanations for the Nordic Paradox were identified: Macro-micro disconnect (i.e., discordance between individual beliefs and behaviors and macro-social norms of gender equality), IPVAW as multicausal (i.e., IPVAW defined as a multicausal phenomenon that does not necessarily have to be associated with gender equality), cultural patterns of social relationships (i.e., the role of social relationships and the way people relate to each other in the Nordic countries), and backlash effect (i.e., men's reaction to greater equality for women). Although this study does not provide a final explanation for the Nordic paradox, its results provide us with a better understanding of the phenomenon and can help to advance research in this field.

Regional governance, gender and the COVID-19 pandemic in the global south

ABSTRACT Do regional institutions promote more equitable governance in the global South and, in particular, do they enable more gender-equitable governance? We examine these questions in the light of regional governance actions and policies under COVID-19, drawing on evidence from Latin America and Africa. We argue that weak regional gender equality norms contributed to the downgrading of the rights of women and girls in policymaking during COVID-19, within both member states and regional organizations, which resulted in women and girls paying an unnecessarily high price during and after the pandemic. Using interview and documentary data, we show that the existence of gender equality norms led to an initial recognition of the need for gendered protections in COVID-19 policies but that these were side-lined, and the rights and needs of women and girls deprioritized, as the pandemic deepened. We also discuss the gendered costs of deprioritization in terms of preventable everyday harms.

The “boy problem” in public policy

AbstractThe article investigates how gender differences in school performance are conceptualized in recent Swedish and Norwegian public commission reports against the backdrop of an increasing public focus on “problem boys” and boys' underachievement in school as a policy challenge. We found substantive country differences, despite regime similarities and the considerable level of gender equality norms and policy diffusion within the Nordic region. Whereas Swedish reports address gender differences in school performance and behavior equipped with radical feminist perspectives and theories of patriarchal oppression, Norwegian reports largely avoid explicit references to feminist theory and include analyses of the unfair burdens of boys in school and society. It is argued that the diverging approaches are connected to features of the commissions and of the wider knowledge regimes of the two gender equality forerunners, but also to historical differences in the ideological underpinnings of Swedish and Norwegian gender equality policy making.Related ArticlesIreni‐Saban, Liza. 2013. “Give Me Children or Else I Die: The Politics and Policy of Cross‐Border Reproductive Care.” Politics & Policy 41(1): 5–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12004.Svallfors, Stefan, Erica Falkenström, Corrie Hammar, and Anna T. Höglund. 2022. “Networked Reports: Commissioning and Production of Expert Reports on Swedish Health Care Governance.” Politics & Policy 50(3): 580–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12462.Tusalem, Rollin F. 2022. “Does Gendered Representation in National Legislatures Promote Substantive Representation and Human Development? Evidence from the Developing World.” Politics & Policy 50(6): 1096–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12503.

Populist political masculinities, gender equality, and norm contestation in Armenia and Georgia

ABSTRACT Over the past two decades, the literature on norm diffusion in the post-Soviet space has grown dramatically. Increasingly, scholars have stressed the role of geopolitical competition between powerful international actors, notably Russia and the European Union (EU), in achieving and/or resisting liberal-democratic reform in the region. This article contributes to this recent research by adding a corrective to the literature, exploring the agency of local rather than external actors in the contestation of global gender equality norms through the high-value cases of Armenia and Georgia. By uncovering taken-for-granted gendered power dimensions in local norm contestation – a subject barely addressed in the norm diffusion literature – the article offers an explanation for the persistence of non-democratic trends in the post-Soviet space as a whole. Specifically, the article examines populist political masculinities contesting EU gender equality policies and related norms concerning violence against women and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and trans (LGBT) rights, arguing that in Armenia and Georgia, it is local populist actors, using taken-for-granted patriarchal and heterosexual discourses to reclaim local masculinities and their political legitimacy, who represent a major challenge to gender equality norms.

(Un)wanted partners: Muslim politics and third front coalitions in India

ABSTRACT Drawing on qualitative fieldwork with two Islamist movements in India since 2011, this article contributes to a better understanding of how Muslim community leaders try to spearhead third front alliances with secular and religious minorities through discourses of shared political and economic victimhood and the provision of protection against the assertions of Hindu nationalists in an era of unprecedented Hindu vote consolidation. While such alliances exist, the paper analyzes a new trend within Muslim politics that promotes a political departure from the traditional patronage of the Indian National Congress (INC) and other low-caste and socialist parties, which have historically represented the Muslim masses. I then discuss the limitations of these third front leadership ambitions, whereby Islamist movements are seen as incompatible with gender equality and secular norms. Theoretically, the paper informs the academic debate on coalition-building processes within social movement theory (SMT), which has partially ignored the role of conservative religious actors in democratic as well as authoritarian systems.

Preventing and combating domestic violence: the role of cultural and mental factors

The article analyzes the cultural and mental factors that influence the spread of the problem of domestic violence.
 It is motivated by the fact that the cultural and mental tradition of domestic violence is the background phenomenon that cannot be combated exclusively by legal means. The cultural-mental tradition of the domestic population is a complex socio-cultural phenomenon that reveals ideas, norms and values formed in society, which can contribute to the emergence and support of accidental violence in family relationships. This aspect has a significant impact on the dynamics and distribution of the domestic population in a certain cultural community.
 It is indicated that the domestic population violates the basic rights and freedoms of the individual, deepens social problems and negatively affects the physical and mental health of the victims. Manifestations of domestic violence directly violate the sphere of humanization of social reality, encroach on human rights due to the devaluation of the natural right to life, freedom and security of the individual, in particular, endangering the physical and emotional integrity of the victims.
 The article determines that the role of cultural and mental values of society is significant, especially in the context of public acceptance of domestic violence, ignoring the problem and not taking it seriously enough and treating it as an expected phenomenon.
 The author identifies the characteristics of the mental and cultural values of society that provoke the spread of domestic violence.
 Solving issues related to domestic violence requires an integrated approach, active participation of the community and authorities, as well as raising public awareness of the negative impact of this phenomenon on the individual, family and society as a whole. Therefore, it can be argued that the legal policy in the field of domestic population should be a complex system of legal and legal mechanisms to prevent and counteract this phenomenon. Transforming gender norms, overcoming negative family traditions through behavior change and communication-oriented programs can promote gender equality norms and prevent domestic violence.

Kinwork revisited: The gendered work of keeping up with family through communication technology

Kinwork is the maintenance of cross-household kin and family ties through both physical and mediated means and is a type of unpaid labour historically performed by women. However, changing gender norms, new communicative practices such as networked individualism, and internet and communication technologies are changing how kinwork is done. This study explores how these changes affect the gendered nature of kinwork. Swedes from multigenerational, cross-household families residing in Sweden and the United States took part in primarily home-based interviews (n=40). This empirical study explores current practices of kinwork, focusing on three empirical cases, Christmas cards for seasonal greetings, phone calls for birthday well-wishes, and digital communication for everyday contact. Results highlight how kinwork in the sample is performed by both men and women through a wide range of communication technologies. The study shows that due to new gendered norms, women in the younger generations are less willing to do kinwork for men than older generations in the same kinship networks, indicating generational differences rather than family differences. In the study, men use new internet and communication technology to both do and sometimes take responsibility for kinwork while older communication technologies retain a feminine coding, sometimes resulting in abandonment. Contemporary digital communication technology supports a shift to individual communication rather than group-based which further supports men’s increased engagement in kinwork. The study concludes that kinwork in the studied sample is performed by both men and women and that contemporary kinwork can only be understood by looking at the complex entanglements of evolving gender equality norms, trends towards more individual communication patterns, and affordances of communication technology. Together these result in new ways and opportunities for doing kinwork, which becomes less the work of women and more the work of networked individuals, whatever gender.

Norm spoiling, gender washing and the pushback against women’s rights in Brazilian foreign policy

ABSTRACT The rise of radical right governments has intensified the pushback against gender norms in international forums. States who traditionally embraced gender equality in their foreign policies are now recreating their repertoires to resist their promotion. This was the case of Brazilian foreign policy under the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro. During his government, Brazil reoriented its foreign policy attitude, privileging family and moral values against the threat of 'gender ideology'. Yet, the rise of this anti-feminist foreign policy was suffused with ambivalence and inconsistencies. This article explores these contrasting repertoires to shed light on how anti-gender actors engage with gender equality norms in multilateral settings. We argue that Brazil used a double-track approach that combines norm spoiling and gender washing to maintain a conservative and yet acceptable international profile.

A Girl and a Boy, Are a Bundle of Joy: A Rise in Gender-Equitable Fertility Preferences in India.

Within the last decade, declining son preference in Asia has given rise to gender-equitable fertility preferences. These include daughter preference, gender indifference, and gender balance. Using five rounds of the India National Family Health Surveys, I investigate the sources of the trends in shifting parental preferences for the gender of their children. Over more than a quarter-century period (1992-1993 to 2019-2021), I find a significant decline in son preference from 40 to 18 percent and an increase in gender-equitable preferences among most subpopulations. Multivariate analysis shows that for all survey years, education and frequent exposure to television significantly increased the odds of gender-equitable preferences. In the last decade, community norms supporting women's employment are also associated with gender-equitable preferences. In addition, decomposition analysis shows that compared to compositional change, social norm change accounts for two-thirds of the rise in gender-equitable preferences. These findings suggest that rising norms of gender equality have the potential to dismantle gender-biased preferences in India.

How Gender Can Travel, or Not, through Children’s Books: A Comparison of Poland and the United States

Previous research, mainly from the US, indicates that children’s literature is a powerful transmitter of gender roles. To better understand how ideas about gender found in children’s books cross national borders, travel within frontiers, and crash against obstacles that block the road to gender equality, this article compares the US and Poland in terms of children’s book publishing and scholarship. Whereas the US children’s book market is obviously larger, Poland’s internal market is large and growing enough to rely on its own, and thus acts as a barricade to repel ‘foreign’ gender norms. In the US, feminism has a strong tradition in children’s literature research; in Poland, by contrast and since 1989, feminism and the study of gender in children’s books have no strong tradition, and for the last eight years the government has openly discouraged progressive norms of gender equality. This article concludes with a call for cross-national comparative research on children’s books to provide insights into the facilitators and barriers to intercultural exchange of gender ideologies and national efforts to promote gender progressive ideals among young readers.

Problems of gender inequality in labor relations in Uzbekistan: survey results

The article examines the features and importance of consolidating the norms of gender equality in the constitutions and laws of Uzbekistan and foreign countries. In addition, the article discussed the issues of consolidating the norms that guarantee gender equality in legislation, how it works in practice, as well as social factors that can negatively affect the implementation of gender policy pursued by the state. The author conducted an anonymous survey of more than 300 respondents to prove these problems with concrete facts. As a result of the research, the problem of gender stereotypes in labor relations was studied and analyzed. In addition, the article discussed female and male professions, the problem of their rooting in the minds of our society and their negative impact on the career of women. In this article, the author, analyzing the influence of gender stereotypes on the life and work of women, in particular on cases of discrimination against them in hiring, choosing a profession and labor relations draws appropriate conclusions and proposals for legislation.

Chasing gender equality norms: the robustness of sexual and reproductive health and rights

This article studies Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) at the United Nations (UN). SRHR, a gender equality norm that applies human rights to sexuality and reproduction, have traditionally been supported by a network of actors led by the United States (US) and the European Union. Nevertheless, a rival network has contested SRHR since their conception in the early 1990s. We study the robustness of SRHR in five UN fora between 2009 and 2020, focusing on actor constellations, productive power and norm concordance. Between 2009 and 2016, the normative status quo was maintained, except in the Human Rights Council and the Security Council. In 2017, the US joined the network of rivals and accelerated the norm’s weakening in the Security Council and the Commission on Population and Development. However, to weaken or strengthen the norm further, both networks see a need to address SRHR outside the UN.

Electing More Women to National Legislatures: An Interplay between Global Normative Pressure and Domestic Political Regimes

Abstract Existing studies show that democracies are no better than autocracies in terms of women's legislative representation. This finding seems counterintuitive because democracies are more politically inclusive and foster greater respect for civil and political rights, compared to autocracies. We revisit the relationship between democracy and women's legislative representation by considering the interaction between democracy and global norms of gender equality in politics. We argue that democracies are better able than autocracies to translate a global norm of gender-balanced political representation into actual domestic practices. Further, we contend that the effect of democracies also depends on the external normative pressure. Using a time-series cross-sectional dataset covering 147 countries from 1951 to 2013, our analysis shows that the more democratic a country is, the more responsive it is to global norms promoting gender equality in politics. It also demonstrates that the effect of democracy on women's representation strengthens, as global normative pressure for women's inclusion in politics grows.

The Appointment of Women to Authoritarian Cabinets in Africa

AbstractWhat explains variation in the inclusion of women in authoritarian cabinets? We theorize that leaders of electoral autocracies are affected by changing international norms of democracy and women's rights to appoint women ministers. We propose two hypotheses. First, increasing dependence on aid from democratic donors encourages leaders of electoral autocracies to appoint more women ministers. Second, electoral autocrats uprooting democratic traits appoint more women ministers to minimize the reputational costs of their autocratization. Using data from authoritarian regimes in 38 African countries between 1973 and 2013, we find that increases in aid from democracies are associated with modest increases in women's share of cabinet seats. As our theory suggests, this relationship holds only in electoral autocracies in more recent years when norms of gender equality have been strongest. Conversely, we find no evidence that autocratization periods are associated with increases in women's cabinet share. Additionally, we show that supply-side factors and the politics of multi-ethnic coalition building appear to explain differences in women's cabinet seat share in autocracies.

Gender labor inequalities in the public sector: the interplay between policy and micro-politics

PurposeThis paper aims to describe and explain women's labor participation in the public sector, particularly at the local level. The paper analyses the representation of women employees in the public sector through a case study of a city council in a mid-sized Spanish city. The authors delve into the extent of gender labor discrimination in public administration, exploring a diversity of situations, experiences, and perceptions of women workers in female, neutral, and male-dominated areas in the local administration.Design/methodology/approachThe authors have applied a combined methodology of quantitative analysis based on an exhaustive analysis of the list of job posts, and qualitative analysis from the narratives of women workers in biographical interviews, in women-dominated, neutral and male-dominated areas.FindingsThe authors conclude by providing a clear description of women's representation in local administration. Despite the institutional efforts in applying gender equality norms and public policies in administration, employment and labor market, this article shows the persistent inequality in employment within the administration. The paper demonstrates that public administrations can be seen as gender regimes that tend to reproduce inequality by formal and informal dynamics. This inequality gender reproduction in a supposedly gender-neutral administration reflects discrimination in a labor market. The paper details phenomena relating to horizontal occupational segregation, glass ceilings, sticky floors, and the undervaluing of women's work, among other phenomena.Practical implicationsThe administration should consider two essential factors that endanger gender equality: (1) the demonstrated regression of gender mainstreaming and the effects on women's employment as a consequence of the crisis, and (2) neoliberal governments and extreme right-wing parties (or neoliberal governments and extreme right-wing parties' support, as is the case with the current Andalusian regional government), whose agenda includes the fight against what neoliberal governments and extreme right-wing parties call “gender ideology”.Social implicationsThe gap between the effectiveness of gender legislation and actual working practices within the administration has been highlighted. This fact should be a wake-up call for the administrations to strictly comply with gender legislation, given that local administrations are the closest to the citizens. Future research should focus on changes to detect any regression and to prevent losing the improvements already achieved, which can still be very much strengthened.Originality/valueThis article helps to fill the gap in the literature on gender discrimination in the labor market, which often omits the public sector, especially in local administration, which is the closest administrative structure to citizenship respecting public policies. The article contributes to highlighting the need for an egalitarian labor market in order to achieve optimal performance, commitment and efficiency in egalitarian labor relations in local administration.

Global Gender Equality Norm and Trade Unions in Turkey: Local Contestations, Rival Validations, and Discrepant Receptions

Gender equality is a global norm, and the existing norm mechanisms attribute to trade unions globally a stakeholder position in norm diffusion and promotion. This is well-articulated in the official documents and the institutions within the United Nations (UN) equality regime that collaborates with both the local and the international unions accordingly. Complementarily, local trade unions collaborate with the UN bodies and international trade unions in the diffusion of gender equality to their localities. Nevertheless, this multi-layered process is disrupted by local contestations, with bold consequences for the proper functioning of the equality norms. This paper is a scrutiny on the practice of the contestation on and the interruption of the functioning of the gender equality norm, with a particular focus on trade unions in Turkey. In the country, despite that trade unions have been well-integrated into the global gender regime and mechanisms; therefore, despite the existence of an uninterrupted norm flow regarding gender equality to the labour space, the trade unions offer competing interpretations, driven by their differing and even conflicting politico-cultural positioning. Within the paper, this process of interruption and its consequences for the broader functioning of the norm within the country have been thoroughly elaborated. Regarding the source of data in the research, we conducted semi-structured interviews with the union representatives, and we also extensively used the unions’ own publications and documentations.

Fragmented local normative orders, unresolved localizations, and the contesting of gender equality norms in Turkey

ABSTRACT This paper examines the localization process of the global gender equality norm in Turkey and argues that the normative contestations on this concern, among rival political blocs and activist groups, have not allowed any resolution. Accordingly, the global gender equality norm has undergone state-led secular localization as of the 1990s. In the post-2010 context under AKP rule, however, this process was disrupted by the proponents of the alternative conservative local norm of gender justice, who sought to replace the already localized norm of gender equality. Our study examines the contestations and rivalries regarding gender equality in the country with an emphasis on normative strategies utilised by the secular and conservative political blocs. Based on face-to-face interviews conducted with representatives of the main trade unions in the country, we also did a minor case study of the ongoing contestations regarding the adoption of gender equality norms, as manifested in trade union activism.

Beyond Performative Compliance: Local Forms of Resistance to Anti-FGM Campaigns in Ethiopia

Abstract The Afar region, one of the hot spots of female genital mutilation (FGM) in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, has attracted several international and local anti-FGM campaigns including the longitudinal global UNFPA-UNICEF joint initiative. The region is often praised as a showcase for the acclaimed social norm change brought by intervention projects. Religious leaders and traditional birth attendants (TBAs) were among the key local actors targeted as agents of change and norm mediators. The declaration passed by the religious leaders outlawing FGM, and the numerous community public declarations made all applauded the success in social norm change. Such accounts are often in tune with a narrative of linear progress of norms whereby global norms of gender equality successfully diffuse to local settings. The discourse pronouncing the diffusion of global norms often overshadows the norm contestations and resistance happening at the grassroots level. Based on an ethnographic study conducted in the Afar region, this contribution examines the different aspects of norm contestation and resistance happening at the grassroots level throwing light onto the resurgence of FGM in the region where the practice continued beyond the observational gaze of the government and other stakeholders. Furthermore, the article discusses the discursive strategies that the local community adopted ranging from performative compliance, negotiation for a milder form of the practice to devising alternative ways and platforms for performing FGM. The article critically reflects on the direct and subtle forms of resistance, the framing of the debate and the interplay of several factors that undermined the efficiency of the interventions.