Norm Dynamics Research Articles

On non-Western norm shapers: Brazil and the Responsibility while Protecting

AbstractDrawing on a notable example of a non-Western normative initiative, Brazil’s ‘Responsibility while Protecting’ (RwP), this article contributes to broadening the scope of the norm dynamics literature beyond its common Western-centric focus. Post-2011 Libya intervention, Brazil proposed RwP to clarify what ‘using force’ means under the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) banner, but then withdrew from visible norm sponsorship, only to return to this as part of a collective exercise to institutionalise R2P at the United Nations. First, the article highlights the significant role of non-Western agents whose contributions usually go overlooked, yet carry the highest potential to address the legitimacy deficit of norms like R2P. Second, the article proposes adding a new conceptual tool when investigating the role of agency in norm dynamics, one that incorporates a wider range of norm ‘shaping’ processes and highlights enabling, contingent circumstances. The latter, is argued, best captures the anomalies in contemporary norm contestation. This is illustrated through an empirical analysis of the conditions under which Brazil was able to advance RwP, despite the subsequent emergence of unfavourable circumstances. This article emphasises how significant an alignment of enabling circumstances is to non-Western agents in terms of shaping norm contestation and normative exercise completion.

Emerging powers and the responsibility to protect: non-linear norm dynamics in complex international society

The perceived clash of norms associated with the emergence of rising powers is nowhere more pronounced than in relation to the responsibility to protect (RtoP). However, attempts to explain rising powers’ engagement with norms such as the RtoP are often limited and limiting in what they can tell us. Orthodox models portray predominantly linear and diffusionist logics of norm evolution that underplay the complex interaction implicit in unpredictable outcomes at the systemic level. This article identifies a range of factors that drive participation (or generate hesitation) amongst emerging powers in the development and application of the RtoP. It proceeds to illustrate how changes in normative behaviour emanate from top-down and bottom-up processes as well as the feedback between them. It argues that norm evolution is consequently a unique and emergent outcome of complex international society and therefore argues for using complexity thinking as a heuristic to augment current models and explanations of the evolution of norms in the international system.

Emerging powers and the responsibility to protect: non-linear norm dynamics in complex international society

The perceived clash of norms associated with the emergence of rising powers is nowhere more pronounced than in relation to the responsibility to protect (RtoP). However, attempts to explain rising powers’ engagement with norms such as the RtoP are often limited and limiting in what they can tell us. Orthodox models portray predominantly linear and diffusionist logics of norm evolution that underplay the complex interaction implicit in unpredictable outcomes at the systemic level. This article identifies a range of factors that drive participation (or generate hesitation) amongst emerging powers in the development and application of the RtoP. It proceeds to illustrate how changes in normative behaviour emanate from top-down and bottom-up processes as well as the feedback between them. It argues that norm evolution is consequently a unique and emergent outcome of complex international society and therefore argues for using complexity thinking as a heuristic to augment current models and explanations of the evolution of norms in the international system.

Norm dynamics and international organisations: South Africa in the African Union and International Criminal Court

Over the past two decades, South Africa has sought to perform several roles on the world stage, such as the economic dynamo of Southern Africa, a diplomatic heavyweight representing the African continent, and a norm leader on the world stage as a so-called ‘middle-power’. Although South Africa's evolution and rise as an important player in global affairs has generated a welcome body of critical scholarly literature, comparatively little analysis has been allocated to understanding how norm dynamics and the country's ever-evolving international identities have enabled it to construct and reconstruct its ‘interests’. Social constructivism is best suited for such an analysis because it can operationalise norms, commitments, identities, and interests, and it provides the epistemological tools to map the increasingly multilateral connections between global, regional, and domestic forums. By employing a rationalist approach to constructivism, this paper remedies the aforementioned gap in the literature by illustrating how South Africa constructs and reconstructs its identities and interests in relation to membership in international organisations (IOs). To that end, the paper examines the evolution of South Africa's participation in the African Union (especially ‘peacekeeping’ contributions) and the International Criminal Court. The paper concludes by assessing the theoretical implications and practical ramifications of the norm dynamics involved in South Africa's commitment to these two IOs.

Advancing Global IR: Challenges, Contentions, and Contributions

This Presidential Issue, with contributions by scholars from Asia, Australia, the Middle East, South America, Africa, Europe, and the United States, illustrates how the idea of Global international relations (IR) could serve as a framework for both scholarly debate and empirical research and analysis. This issue is divided into two main parts. The first part contains nine feature articles that illustrate the multiple dimensions of a Global IR research agenda, overall demonstrating how bringing in non-Western ideas and agency broadens the horizons of existing IR knowledge. The topics covered here include Chinese conceptions of “relationality;” colonial interactions in the Indian Ocean to diffuse Westphalian sovereignty through processes of localization, comparing regionalisms, and norm dynamics in Asia and Europe; and the contribution of intercivilizational dialogues in bridging the West-Rest divide. Together, these articles challenge dominant understandings of these issues in current IR theory and highlight the place and agency of non-Western societies in the global order. The second part of the Presidential Issue, the Forum Section, contains ten short contributions that were drawn from two Presidential Theme Panels at the ISA 2015 Convention in New Orleans. These Forum essays not only highlight the obstacles facing the realization of Global IR, including some traditionalist objections to the whole idea, but also offer some pathways to overcome them. Overall, the Presidential Issue suggests that a Global IR is both possible and desirable.

Norm antipreneurs and theorising resistance to normative change

AbstractNorm dynamics studies typically accord a special status to norm entrepreneurs, actors who promote new global norms. But conceptually privileging these agents of change has meant the norm dynamics literature has become unbalanced and marred by case selection bias. Accordingly, an oppositional role – the ‘norm antipreneur’ – should be recognised to correct these problems. When the normative status quo in an issue-area isentrenched, a clear distinction can be drawn between the entrepreneurs and antipreneurs, because in these contexts the antipreneurs enjoy significant but under-appreciated tactical and strategic advantages. Recognising this enables the construction of a norm dynamics role-spectrum – a sort of ‘typology of roles’ – including ‘competitor entrepreneur’ and ‘creative resister’ in addition to the entrepreneur and antipreneur roles which actors might play in particular norm contestation contexts. Understanding these roles promises to improve analyses of the dynamic interactions between actors in particular norm contestation processes, thereby bringing greater overall balance to the norm dynamics literature.1

From “the Rest” to “the West”? Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the Western Bias in Norm Diffusion Research

This article discusses the construction and diffusion of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (RIP). RIP have only scarcely been addressed in detail from a human rights (HR) norm diffusion perspective, yet it is instructive for gaining further insights into norm dynamics, due to the marginalization of indigenous communities within their countries of origin as well as the concentration of indigenous populations in the Global South. RIP have hence been qualified as a “least likely” case for internationalization. Mainstream diffusion literature has mostly focused on the proliferation of liberal Western norms, radiating from “the West” to “the Rest.” Powerful Western states as norm entrepreneurs have been explicitly included into models of normative change (for example, the spiral model). My qualitative process tracing research, however, presents a distinct pattern: Indigenous peoples themselves, in alliance with transnational advocacy networks and sympathetic states (to a considerable extent Latin American), have succeeded in constructing a new HR norm manifested in the UN Declaration on RIP. Among the skeptical norm takers were mainly liberal democracies such as the United States. To understand this puzzle, I combine Acharya's norm localization concept with its focus on “cognitive priors” with the norm appropriation framework recently suggested by Grosklaus.

The Evolution of Social Norms

Social norms are patterns of behavior that are self-enforcing within a group: Everyone conforms, everyone is expected to conform, and everyone wants to conform when they expect everyone else to conform. Social norms are often sustained by multiple mechanisms, including a desire to coordinate, fear of being sanctioned, signaling membership in a group, or simply following the lead of others. This article shows how stochastic evolutionary game theory can be used to study the resulting dynamics. I illustrate with a variety of examples drawn from economics, sociology, demography, and political science. These include bargaining norms, norms governing the terms of contracts, norms of retirement, dueling, foot binding, medical treatment, and the use of contraceptives. These cases highlight the challenges of applying the theory to empirical cases. They also show that the modern theory of norm dynamics yields insights and predictions that go beyond conventional equilibrium analysis.

Writing Norms

The language used by norm research exercises a form of epistemological violence that seeks to minimize normative ambiguity, hence foreclosing alternative ways of reading and writing about norms. Taking a seminal text of constructivist literature on norms as an example, this article examines how this research has been dominated by a specific “norm language.” To uncover the power of this language, we examine the normalizing effects and implications of a particularly influential work in norm research literature. Inspired by the work of Jacques Derrida, we inquire into the presuppositions of “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change” by Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink. A double reading of the text traces how it relies on logocentric dichotomies that need to be sustained by discursive moves of deferral, closure, and forgetting. We provide an alternative reading of some of the stories in the text that work to destabilize its underlying logics. Finally, we offer a perspective on “writing norms” calling for a culture of tolerance and an ethics of “hospitality” that celebrate normative ambiguity as a source for dialogue.

The Thesis of Norm Transformation in the Theory of Mass Atrocity

Theoretical accounts of genocide and mass atrocity commonly embrace the thesis of norm transformation. This thesis holds, first, that individual and institutional participation in such crimes is at least partially explained by transformations in basic norms that structure social and political life. It holds, second, that preventing future occurrences of such crimes requires changing norms that currently guide the actions of particular individual and institutional actors. This paper clarifies, defends, and extends the thesis of norm transformation. It clarifies this thesis by providing a general account of the nature and dynamics of norms. It defends this thesis against charges of circularity and against the claim that norms are not, in fact, fundamental guides to action. Finally, it extends this thesis by arguing that changes in norms before, during, and after mass atrocities count among the considerations that ought to be included in assessments of legal and moral accountability for such crimes. This paper clarifies, defends, and extends the thesis of norm transformation. It clarifies this thesis by offering a general account of norms and norm dynamics, and by showing how this account can enrich existing explanatory and preventive applications of the thesis of norm transformation. It defends this thesis against a number of theoretical and practical challenges—including challenges to the power of this thesis to help explain historical mass atrocities, and challenges to the efficacy of proposed preventive changes in norms. Finally, it extends this thesis by arguing for a third, evaluative claim, namely, that changes in norms before, during, and after mass atrocities count among the considerations that ought to be included in assessments of legal and moral accountability for such crimes. In proposing this extension of the thesis of norm transformation, this paper posits a fundamental continuity between explanatory, preventive, and evaluative applications of this thesis. The paper thus breaks with much recent scholarship on genocide and mass atrocity, within which these different aims appear either unrelated or at odds. 1 At the same time, the paper acknowledges key criticisms of existing modes of assessing legal accountability for mass violence. Those criticisms help structure the discussion of the evaluative implications of the thesis of norm transformation. The paper proceeds as follows. Section One uses a case drawn from the annals of National Socialist medical practice as the starting point for a general discussion of norms and norm dynamics. Norms are defined in terms of three features: their acceptance, their particularity, and their action-

Taking ambiguity seriously: Explaining the indeterminacy of the European Union conventional arms export control regime

The reduction of ambiguous language is a commonly proposed strategy to remedy non-compliance with international obligations. The European Union conventional arms export control regime is a case in point; here, eliminating ambiguity has stood at the forefront among the strategies that have been proposed to remedy poor implementation. The point of departure of this article, however, is the observation that language-addressing strategies are largely inattentive to the underlying dynamics that caused ambiguity in the first place. Through tracing the formation and evolution of the regime, the article argues that the ambiguity of the export control regime is attributable to a configuration of underlying heterogeneity and resistance that is not conducive to a more precise language. Furthermore, the article argues that in order to explain the adoption, evolution and ambiguity of the regime, we need a theoretical model that moves away from the strong emphasis on norm dynamics prevalent in recent research on arms export control. While norm dynamics and a preference for export restraint have certainly influenced the adoption, evolution and design of the regime, the article highlights how the material interests of export promotion, security and sovereignty feature as more critical variables. This casts new light on the gap between export control commitments and export practice, and provides important clues about the prospects for efficient multilateral arms export control. Pushing the research agenda forward therefore hinges on bringing material interests back into the equation.

International norm polarization: sexuality as a subject of human rights protection

International norm polarization is a rare but recurring process within international norm dynamics. Polarization describes the most combative response to attempted norm change: ‘a candidate norm is accepted by some states but resisted by others, leading to a period of international disputation between two groups in which socializing pressures pull states toward compliance with rival norms’. We identify several cases of polarization and explain this phenomenon by elaborating the constructivist model of the norm life cycle to processes of international resistance to norm change as well as to norm acceptance. We also draw on social identity theory (SIT) to examine group-psychological responses where disputed norms become closely linked to state identity. We illustrate these dynamics with reference to conflict over the norm that recognizes sexual orientation and gender identity as subjects of international human rights protection. Over the past decade this candidate norm has become increasingly contentious internationally, and bitter debates over resolutions concerning extra-judicial killings and discrimination have divided the United Nations General Assembly and Human Rights Council. The article makes a primary contribution to analysis of international norm change and also contributes to an emerging literature concerning sexuality and international relations.

A social norm perspective on corporate governance soft law

Purpose– The aim of this study is to apply the concept of social norm dynamics to explain how corporate governance soft law is enforced.Design/methodology/approach– Using data of German listed stock companies and of economic media coverage between 2001 and 2010, the authors observe the complex relationship between sanctions and behavior in the social context of corporate governance soft law.Findings– The authors find the public discussion of normative demands related to corporate governance issues increases if firms do not comply with the German Corporate Governance Code. The authors show that groups of actors, such as DAX companies, represent the addressees of normative demands, i.e. targets of expectations about what is appropriate and what is not. The authors also find that normative demands tend to be personalized, as public discussion is greater when initiated by a specific individual or firm. Finally, the authors demonstrate that social control in terms of public sanctioning positively influences a firm’s compliance with the soft law whereby negative statements (disapproval) outweigh the effects of positive statements (approval).Originality/value– We corroborate the social character of normative demands in the context of corporate governance soft law, and contribute to a better understanding of why soft law can work, despite it having no legally binding force. The results of our study suggest that sanction mechanisms in the context of social norms underpin the strength of soft law as an alternative to, or extension of, hard law.

Professional Socialization and International Norms: Physicians against Organ Trafficking

The concept of state socialization has been fundamental to the analysis of international norm dynamics. I argue that the establishment and spread of international norms may require the socialization not only of states, but also of nonstate communities: through socialization, these communities move toward establishing the shared norms that are the foundation for their influence on states. Specifically, the article highlights socialization among professionals through social influence and persuasion. The efforts against organ trafficking demonstrate these microprocesses at work within the international medical community. Building on physicians' pursuit of status, and using persuasion and even coercion, the medical community has sought to establish professional norms that repudiate transplant commercialism and encourage ethical transplantation practices. On the basis of these norms, the medical community then urged governments to curb organ trafficking, resulting in a wave of legislative prohibitions on trading in organs. This case demonstrates that a full understanding of international norms may require us to examine socialization not only among states: the socialization of nonstate actors may also play a crucial role in generating an international normative change.

Corporate Governance Soft Law Regulations from a Social Norm Perspective

Purpose: This study applies the concept of social norm dynamics to explain how corporate governance soft law is enforced. Design/methodology/approach: Using data of German listed stock companies and of economic media coverage between 2001 and 2010, we observe the complex relationship between sanctions and behavior in the social context of corporate governance soft law. Findings: We find that the public discussion of normative demands related to corporate governance issues increases if firms do not comply with the German Corporate Governance Code. We show that groups of actors, such as DAX companies, represent the addressees of normative demands, i.e., targets of expectations about what is appropriate and what is not. We also find that normative demands tend to be personalized, as public discussion is greater when initiated by a specific individual or firm. Finally, we demonstrate that social control in terms of public sanctioning positively influences a firm’s compliance with the soft law, whereby negative statements (disapproval) outweigh the effects of positive statements (approval). Originality/ value: We corroborate the social character of normative demands in the context of corporate governance soft law, and contribute to a better understanding of why soft law can work despite its having no legally binding force. The results of our study suggest that sanction mechanisms in the context of social norms underpin the strength of soft law as an alternative to, or extension of, hard law.

Professional socialization and international norms: Physicians against organ trafficking

The concept of state socialization has been fundamental to the analysis of international norm dynamics. I argue that the establishment and spread of international norms may require the socialization not only of states, but also of non-state communities: through socialization, these communities move toward establishing the shared norms that are the foundation for their influence on states. Specifically, the article highlights socialization among professionals through social influence and persuasion. The efforts against organ trafficking demonstrate these micro-processes at work within the international medical community. Building on physicians’ pursuit of status, and using persuasion and even coercion, the medical community has sought to establish professional norms that repudiate transplant commercialism and encourage ethical transplantation practices. On the basis of these norms, the medical community then urged governments to curb organ trafficking, resulting in a wave of legislative prohibitions on trading in organs. This case demonstrates that a full understanding of international norms may require us to examine socialization not just among states; the socialization of non-state actors may also play a crucial role in generating an international normative change.

How do religious norms diffuse? Institutional translation and international change in a post-secular world society

This article draws from Habermasian post-secular theory to broaden the scope of Constructivist research on norm dynamics beyond its current Western-centric focus. In an increasingly post-secular world society, we conceptualize the mechanism of institutional translation to explain processes of norm diffusion whereby culturally situated ‘thick’ norms acquire a ‘thinner’ ethical status via a dialogical process of normative contestation across diverse ethical perspectives. Institutional translation differs from, but also complements, mechanisms of norm diffusion, such as persuasion and localization, by illustrating how norms conceived and promoted by non-Western religious-based actors can acquire global legitimacy within the institutions of the international liberal order. The article investigates the explanatory value of this framework through an empirical analysis of two contrasting cases of norm promotion by the Organization of Islamic Conference at the United Nations. The first case considers the global diffusion of the norm of dialogue of civilizations as an example of successful institutional translation. The second case illustrates the failed diffusion of the norm against the defamation of religion as an instance of unsuccessful institutional translation.

The R2P and Norm Diffusion: Towards A Framework of Norm Circulation

The case of R2P calls for greater attention to agency and feedback in norm dynamics. New international norms are more likely to spread if the responsibility for their creation and diffusion is seen to have been more broadly shared than being credited to any particular group. Many new norms have multiple sources and contexts, yet there is a tendency to credit them to their final point of articulation. Moreover, once created, norms do not remain uncontested and static. The application of new norms in different locations and contexts can lead to their subsequent modifications, which in turn can reshape its initial features and support mechanisms. This feedback constitutes a form of agency, which might broaden the legitimacy and appeal of the norm and the possibility of its greater diffusion. The case of R2P shows that although it is generally attributed to the work of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, the norm had multiple prior sources, including the idea of ‘responsible sovereignty’. Furthermore, its development has had a strong African context. Lastly, subsequent controversies over the norm’s application, especially in Libya, attests to the possibility of critical feedback, such as calls for stricter enforcement of the norm’s criteria of last resort and proportionality, and greater accountability in operations conducted in defence of the norm.

Roles and Realities: When and Why Gatekeepers Fail to Change Foreign Policy

The adoption of international norms by a state depends on the active support of decision makers in key gatekeeping positions. Yet, political change does not inevitably follow the initiatives of norm entrepreneurs. The literature on norm dynamics has largely focused on successful norm change. This focus on cases that support the notion that norms matter constitutes selection on the dependent variable. To more fully grasp the role and limits of gatekeepers, it is important to also investigate cases where political resistance prevented the domestic adoption of international norms. This study uses an illustrative case study in which circumstances appeared ripe for a new policy direction but where change failed to materialize. The study concludes that gatekeepers matter, but also that norm change crucially, depends not only on gatekeepers' ability to frame norms in terms that resonate domestically but also on their ability to build coalitions with other relevant political actors.

The unanticipated break-up of Sudan: causes and consequences of redrawing international boundaries

The paper examines the reasons that led to the break-up of Sudan. While both domestic and external factors explain the largely unanticipated outcome, domestic factors were far more important than external ones. However, the international consequences of Sudan's break-up may be far-reaching. Most international observers have claimed that the independence of South Sudan is ‘exceptional’ and does not create a precedent for redrawing international boundaries. The paper argues that this view ignores implicit norm dynamics and argues instead that the South's secession should be considered as an addition to a number of on-going debates that increasingly question the sanctity of colonial boundaries.