Nonwoven Scaffolds Research Articles

Tolnaftate\u2013graphene composite-loaded nanoengineered electrospun scaffolds as efficient therapeutic dressing material for regimen of dermatomycosis

Graphene “The novel carbon nano-trope” tailors auspicious platform for designing antimicrobial regimen by virtue of its conspicuous molecular interaction with the microorganism. In this work, Tolnaftate (Tf), an antifungal drug, was mingled with Graphene nanoplatelets (Gn) to develop composite (Tf–Gn) via the wet chemical route, embedded in a biocompatible polymeric blend of Eudragit RL100/Eudragit RS100 (EuRL100/EuRS100) and subjected to electrospinning to obtain nonwoven nanoengineered scaffolds (nanofibers) for enhanced anti-dermatophytic virtue. Pursuing cluster of optimization experiments, 20% w/v EuRL100/EuRS 100 was found to be adequate for formation of smooth, defect-free, and regular fibers. Field emission electron microscopy (FESEM) acknowledged zestfully fabrication of smooth, shiny, nano-range, and mesh-like architecture, comprising distinct pockets within their structure. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) conceded formation of the composite Tf–Gn, its physical compatibility with polymers, and improved thermal behavior. Exceptional swelling capacity, significant hydrophilicity, and immense drug entrapment efficiency were obtained of nanofibers fabricated from 3:1 ratio of EuRL100/EuRS100 polymers blend owing to relatively higher permeability which gratified essential benchmark for fabrication of nanofibrous scaffold to alleviate fungal infections caused by dermatophytes. In vitro drug release interpreted controlled liberation of Tf in dissolution media, following Korsmeyer–Peppas model kinetics, and suggested a diffusion-based mechanism. Microdilution broth method was performed for in vitro antifungal efficacy against extremely devastating dermatophytes, i.e., anthropophilic Trichophyton rubrum and zoophilic Microsporum canis, exhibited preeminent growth inhibition against T.rubrum and scanty for M.canis. Findings revealed the superior antifungal activity of Tf–Gn-loaded nanofibers as compared to Tf-loaded nanofibers and recommended potential dressing materials for an effective regimen of dermatomycosis.

Electrospun scaffolds with enlarged pore size: Porosimetry analysis

Electrospun polymeric/composite scaffolds exhibit a micro/nanofibrous structure that resembles the architecture of native extracellular matrix. The unique properties of the interconnected pores and high porosity of electrospun matrices make them very attractive for applications in tissue engineering scaffolding. However, these structures are formed by densely compacted fibers that exhibit pore sizes lower than cell size, leading to poor cell infiltration. In this work, bead-free electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) fibrous scaffolds were prepared by combining electrospinning and salt-leaching techniques. Non-woven scaffolds were obtained using porogens with different sizes. Liquid extrusion porosimetry was used to accurately determine pore size and its distribution. The structural features of prepared matrices were dependent on the initial porogen size but resulted much smaller than this one.

617 A 3D skin equivalent on a novel bi-layered nonwoven polymeric scaffold as a model to study keratinocyte differentiation and wound healing

617 A 3D skin equivalent on a novel bi-layered nonwoven polymeric scaffold as a model to study keratinocyte differentiation and wound healing

Hydroentangled nonwoven eri silk fibroin scaffold for tissue engineering applications

Electrospun scaffolds are being widely studied for its potential application in tissue engineering because of its nanostructure that mimics the extracellular matrices. Although it has several advantages, it lacks mechanical strength and causes structural deformation during handling of the scaffold. It is well known that the textile-based structures like woven and nonwoven fabrics have excellent structural stability. In this study, a woven and a hydroentangled nonwoven fabric were fabricated from eri silk fibroin and their characteristics were compared with electrospun scaffold. The functional groups, contact angle, thermal degradation, hemocompatibility studies showed that all the three scaffolds can be used as biomaterials. The pore and pore size distribution were better with electrospun scaffold due to smaller fiber diameter and more number of layers of fibers. The tensile behaviour was found to be better for woven and nonwoven scaffolds. The enzymatic degradation showed that the stability of woven and nonwoven scaffolds were better and electrospun scaffold degrades and disintegrates quickly. Mouse 3T3 L1 fibroblast and Human Wharton’s jelly Mesenchymal Stem Cells adhered on all the three scaffolds and a higher attachment and growth coverage were obtained on the electrospun and nonwoven scaffolds. It was found that the hydroentangled nonwoven silk scaffold exhibited similar biological characteristics as that of electrospun scaffold and also had higher mechanical strength and structural stability. Hence, it is inferred that the hydroentangled nonwoven scaffold can be considered as a suitable structure for tissue engineering applications.

Curcumin-Incorporated Polymeric Scaffolds and Their Potential for the Detection of Radical Molecules

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive imaging systems could serve as probes for fluorescence detection at wound sites. In this study, curcumin-incorporated polymeric scaffolds were prepared, and their potential for the rapid detection of radical molecules as a wound stage marker was examined. Two types of nonwoven scaffolds, based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA)/poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and chitosan, with similar morphology and porosity were fabricated and analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). ROS-responsive curcumin was successfully incorporated into PLGA/PLA scaffolds via noncovalent hydrophobic interaction. Curcumin-incorporated PLGA/PLA scaffolds showed strong fluorescence intensities in PBS solution for 3 days. These fluorescence signals were significantly decreased by the radical molecule, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). This radical-derived oxidation of curcumin in scaffolds could be applied to ROS detection in vivo and ROS-related disease monitoring of conditions such as wounds and inflammation.

A Simple Modification Method to Obtain Anisotropic and Porous 3D Microfibrillar Scaffolds for Surgical and Biomedical Applications.

In native tissues, cellular organization is predominantly anisotropic. Yet, it remains a challenge to engineer anisotropic scaffolds that promote anisotropic cellular organization at macroscopic length scales. To overcome this challenge, an innovative, cheap and easy method to align clinically approved non-woven surgical microfibrillar scaffolds is presented. The method involves a three-step process of coating, unidirectional stretching of scaffolds after heating them above glass transition temperature, and cooling back to room temperature. Briefly, a polymer coating is applied to a non-woven mesh that results in a partial welding of randomly oriented microfibers at their intersection points. The coated scaffold is then heated above the glass transition temperature of the coating and the scaffold polymer. Subsequently, the coated scaffold is stretched to produce aligned and three dimentional (3D) porous fibrillar scaffolds. In a proof of concept study, a polyglycolic acid (PGA) micro-fibrillar scaffold was coated with poly(4-hydroxybutirate) (P4HB) acid and subsequently aligned. Fibroblasts were cultured in vitro within the scaffold and results showed an increase in cellular alignment along the direction of the PGA fibers. This method can be scaled up easily for industrial production of polymeric meshes or directly applied to small pieces of scaffolds at the point of care.

Fabrication of polycaprolactone/zirconia nanofiber scaffolds using electrospinning technique

In the present study we have investigated the effect of Zirconia (ZrO2) nanoparticles on the fiber morphology, swelling, degradation activity and enhanced cell adhesion of the electrospun polycaprolactone (PCL) non-woven nanofiber scaffolds. The composite nanofibers scaffolds were obtained with ZrO2 weight contents varying in the range 6% to 30%. The effect of the ZrO2 nanoparticles concentration on the fiber morphology was investigated using a Field effect scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). We also investigated the degradation and swelling activities of the fabricated material. The results demonstrated better swelling with controlled degradation in comparison to the PCL scaffolds. Cell viability studies proved the non toxic nature of the nanocomposite scaffolds. Interestingly, the scaffolds with ZrO2 nanoparticles showed enhanced fibroblast proliferation and improved bioactivity of the scaffolds. Further, this is the first report regarding the ability of a biomaterial containing ZrO2 nanoparticles to enhance cell adhesion and proliferation.

Living nanofiber yarn-based woven biotextiles for tendon tissue engineering using cell tri-culture and mechanical stimulation.

Tendon grafts are essential for the treatment of various tendon-related conditions due to the inherently poor healing capacity of native tendon tissues. In this study, we combined electrospun nanofiber yarns with textile manufacturing strategies to fabricate nanofibrous woven biotextiles with hierarchical features, aligned fibrous topography, and sufficient mechanical properties as tendon tissue engineered scaffolds. Comparing to traditional electrospun random or aligned meshes, our novel nanofibrous woven fabrics possess strong tensile and suture-retention strengths and larger pore size. We also demonstrated that the incorporation of tendon cells and vascular cells promoted the tenogenic differentiation of the engineered tendon constructs, especially under dynamic stretch. This study not only presents a novel tissue engineered tendon scaffold fabrication technique but also provides a useful strategy to promote tendon differentiation and regeneration.

Electrospun aniline-tetramer-co-polycaprolactone fibers for conductive, biodegradable scaffolds

Conjugated polymers have been proposed as promising materials for scaffolds in tissue engineering applications. However, the restricted processability and biodegradability of conjugated polymers limit their use for biomedical applications. Here we synthesized a block-co-polymer of aniline tetramer and PCL (AT–PCL), and processed it into fibrous non-woven scaffolds by electrospinning. We showed that fibronectin (Fn) adhesion was dependent on the AT–PCL oxidative state, with a reduced Fn unfolding length on doped membranes. Furthermore, we demonstrated the cytocompatibility and potential of these membranes to support the growth and osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells over 21 days.

Elastic moduli of electrospun mats: Importance of fiber curvature and specimen dimensions

Success of tissue engineering relies on the architecture and properties of porous scaffolds. Electrospun nonwoven scaffolds in the form of mats are unique materials due to large surface area to volume ratio, high porosity, versatility in surface functionalities and excellent mechanical properties. Maneuvering the mechanical behavior of the electrospun mat is a major challenge both from theoretical and experimental perspectives. Herein, we report a two-dimensional (2D) analytical model of normalized elastic moduli of electrospun mats by formulating a relationship with the governing fiber and structural parameters. The analytical model of normalized mat modulus has also accounted for fiber curvature in the form of sinusoidal curve along with the specimen dimensions considered during the uniaxial tensile test. A comparison has been made between the magnitudes of normalized mat modulus obtained through predictive modeling and the experimental results adapted from the literature. In general, a good agreement has been found between the theoretical and the experimental results of normalized moduli of electrospun mats. An interplay of some of the governing parameters has been analyzed through parametric analysis. Through theoretical modeling, the normalized amplitude of fiber crimp via fiber diameter along with the aspect ratio of specimen dimensions are observed to be the dominant factors responsible for modulating the normalized mat modulus.

Hyaluronic Acid Coating Enhances Biocompatibility of Nonwoven PGA Scaffold and Cartilage Formation.

Synthetic polymers such as polyglycolic acid (PGA) fibers are the traditional tissue engineering scaffolds that are widely used for engineering a variety of soft tissues. However, the major disadvantage of this polymer material is its released acidic degradation products that trigger inflammatory response and fibrotic process, which affects the biocompatibility and the quality of the engineered tissues. In this study, the effect of hyaluronic acid (HA) coating on improving PGA biocompatibility was explored. The results showed that 1% HA solution could better coat PGA fibers than other tested concentrations of HA, and coated PGA exhibited less inflammatory reaction upon in vivo subcutaneous implantation. In vitro characterization demonstrated that HA coating could enhance cell adhesion to the scaffold and reduce gene expression of IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, and α-SMA. It also decreased the acidity of degradation products in vitro. Furthermore, coated PGA could engineer better cartilages in vitro with higher content of total collagen and glycosaminoglycan, as well as higher gene expression levels of collagen II, aggrecan, and Sox9. Collectively, the data indicate that HA coating can significantly enhance the biocompatibility of this traditional scaffold material, which also enhances the quality of engineered tissues.

Biocompatible Silk Noil-Based Three-Dimensional Carded-Needled Nonwoven Scaffolds Guide the Engineering of Novel Skin Connective Tissue.

Retracting hypertrophic scars resulting from healed burn wounds heavily impact on the patients' life quality. Biomaterial scaffolds guiding burned-out skin regeneration could suppress or lessen scar retraction. Here we report a novel silk noil-based three-dimensional (3D) nonwoven scaffold produced by carding and needling with no formic acid exposure, which might improve burn healing. Once wetted, it displays human skin-like physical features and a high biocompatibility. Human keratinocyte-like cervical carcinoma C4-I cells seeded onto the carded-needled nonwovens in vitro quickly adhered to them, grew, and actively metabolized glutamine releasing lactate. As on plastic, they released no proinflammatory IL-1β, although secreting tumor necrosis factor-alpha, an inducer of the autocrine mitogen amphiregulin in such cells. Once grafted into interscapular subcutaneous tissue of mice, carded-needled nonwovens guided the afresh assembly of a connective tissue enveloping the fibroin microfibers and filling the interposed voids within 3 months. Fibroblasts and a few poly- or mononucleated macrophages populated the engineered tissue. Besides, its extracellular matrix contained thin sparse collagen fibrils and a newly formed vascular network whose endothelin-1-expressing endothelial cells grew first on the fibroin microfibrils and later expanded into the intervening matrix. Remarkably, no infiltrates of inflammatory leukocytes and no packed collagen fibers bundles among fibroin microfibers, no fibrous capsules at the grafts periphery, and hence no foreign body response was obtained at the end of 3 months of observation. Therefore, we posit that silk noil-based 3D carded-needled nonwoven scaffolds are tools for translational medicine studies as they could guide connective tissue regeneration at deep burn wounds averting scar retraction with good functional results.

Tailoring Supramolecular Nanofibers for Air Filtration Applications.

The demand of new materials and processes for nanofiber fabrication to enhance the performance of air filters is steadily increasing. Typical approaches to obtain nanofibers are based on top-down processes such as melt blowing, centrifugal spinning, and electrospinning of polymer materials. However, fabrication of polymer nanofibers is limited with respect to either a sufficiently high throughput or the smallest achievable fiber diameter. This study reports comprehensively on a fast and simple bottom-up process to prepare supramolecular nanofibers in situ inside viscose/polyester microfiber nonwovens. Here, selected small molecules of the materials class of 1,3,5-benzenetrisamides are employed. The microfiber-nanofiber composites exhibit a homogeneous nanofiber distribution and morphology throughout the entire nonwoven scaffold. Small changes in molecular structure and processing solvent have a strong influence on the final nanofiber diameter and diameter distribution and, consequently, on the filtration performance. Choosing proper processing conditions, microfiber-nanofiber composites with surprisingly high filtration efficiencies of particulate matter are obtained. In addition, the microfiber-nanofiber composite integrity at elevated temperatures was determined and revealed that the morphology of supramolecular nanofibers is maintained compared to that of the utilized polymer nonwoven.

A biomimetic multilayer nanofiber fabric fabricated by electrospinning and textile technology from polylactic acid and Tussah silk fibroin as a scaffold for bone tissue engineering

To engineer bone tissue, a scaffold with good biological properties should be provided to approximate the hierarchical structure of collagen fibrils in natural bone. In this study, we fabricated a novel scaffold consisting of multilayer nanofiber fabrics (MLNFFs) by weaving nanofiber yarns of polylactic acid (PLA) and Tussah silk fibroin (TSF). The yarns were fabricated by electrospinning, and we found that spinnability, as well as the mechanical properties of the resulting scaffold, was determined by the ratio between polylactic acid and Tussah silk fibroin. In particular, a 9:1 mixture can be spun continuously into nanofiber yarns with narrow diameter distribution and good mechanical properties. Accordingly, woven scaffolds based on this mixture had excellent mechanical properties, with Young's modulus 417.65MPa and tensile strength 180.36MPa. For nonwoven scaffolds fabricated from the same materials, the Young's modulus and tensile strength were 2- and 4-fold lower, respectively. Woven scaffolds also supported adhesion and proliferation of mouse mesenchymal stem cells, and promoted biomineralization via alkaline phosphatase and mineral deposition. Finally, the scaffolds significantly enhanced the formation of new bone in damaged femoral condyle in rabbits. Thus, the scaffolds are potentially suitable for bone tissue engineering because of biomimetic architecture, excellent mechanical properties, and good biocompatibility.

TISSUE ENGINEERED SCAFFOLD MODIFIED BY BIOACTIVE MOLECULES FOR DIRECTED TISSUE REGENERATION

Search of an ideal polymer for the preparation of the artificial scaffolds is an important goal of vascular tissue engineering. Biofunctionalization of the scaffolds may assist in creation of the bioactive environment at the site of implantation. Combination of biodegradable polymers and growth factors may be an appropriate approach for the directed regeneration of the vascular tissues. Purpose . To assess tissue reaction to nonwoven scaffolds prepared from poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)/polycaprolactone (PCL) with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and stromal-derived growth factor-1α (SDF -1α) implanted into the rat pericardial sac. Materials and methods. Nonwoven PHBV/PCL scaffolds with and without VEGF, bFGF, and SDF -1α were prepared using electrospinning and implanted into the rat pericardial sac for 2 weeks, 1, 2, and 3 months with the further histological examination. Results. Implantation of the scaffolds did not cause any inflammatory reaction. We detected an active neoangiogenesis in both PHBV/PCL/VEGF and PHBV/PCL/SDF -1α scaffolds and adjacent tissues at all the time points. Moreover, we observed a considerable cell infiltration and production of extracellular matrix in PHBV/PCL/SDF -1α scaffolds. PHBV/PCL/bFGF scaffolds were colonized by fibroblasts and were surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. Therefore, growth factors retained their bioactivity in the tissues during the whole time of the experiment. Conclusions. Incorporation of the growth factors into biodegradable polymers is an appropriate approach for the creation of thetissue engineered scaffolds for directed tissue regeneration. VEGF, bFGF, and SDF -1α may be used for the creation of biodegradable vascular graft promoting de novo formation of the vascular tissue after the implantation.

Making Nonwoven Fibrous Poly(ε‐caprolactone) Constructs for Antimicrobial and Tissue Engineering Applications by Pressurized Melt Gyration

A pressurized melt gyration process has been used for the first time to generate poly(ε‐caprolactone) (PCL) fibers. Gyration speed, working pressure, and melt temperature are varied and these parameters influence the fiber diameter and the temperature enabled changing the surface morphology of the fibers. Two types of nonwoven PCL fiber constructs are prepared. First, Ag‐doped PCL is studied for antibacterial activity using Gram‐negative Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa microorganisms. The melt temperature used to make these constructs significantly influences antibacterial activity. Neat PCL nonwoven scaffolds are also prepared and their potential for application in muscular tissue engineering is studied with myoblast cells. Results show significant cell attachment, growth, and proliferation of cells on the scaffolds.image

Regenerative Engineering: Studies of the Rotator Cuff and other Musculoskeletal Soft Tissues

ABSTRACT‘Regenerative Engineering’ is the integration of advanced materials science, stem cell science, physics, developmental biology and clinical translation to regenerate complex tissues and organ systems. Advanced biomaterial and stem cell science converge as mechanisms to guide regeneration and the development of prescribed cell lineages from undifferentiated stem cell populations. Studies in somite development and tissue specification have provided significant insight into pathways of biological regulation responsible for tissue determination, especially morphogen gradients, and paracrine and contact-dependent signaling. The understanding of developmental biology mechanisms are shifting the biomaterial design paradigm by the incorporation of molecules into scaffold design and biomaterial development that are specifically targeted to promote the regeneration of soft tissues. Our understanding allows the selective control of cell sensitivity, and a temporal and spatial arrangement to modulate the wound healing mechanism, and the development of cell phenotype leading to the patterning of distinct and multi-scale tissue systems.Building on the development of mechanically compliant novel biomaterials, the integration of spatiotemporal control of biological, chemical and mechanical cues helps to modulate the stem cell niche and direct the differentiation of stem cell lineages. We have developed advanced biomaterials and biomimetic scaffold designs that can recapitulate the native tissue structure and mechanical compliance of soft musculoskeletal tissues, such as woven scaffold systems for ACL regeneration, non-woven scaffolds for rotator cuff tendon augmentation, and porous elastomers for regeneration of muscle tissue. Studies have clearly demonstrated the modulation of stem cell response to bulk biomaterial properties, such as toughness and elasticity, and scaffold structure, such as nanoscale and microscale dimensions. The integration of biological cues inspired from our understanding of developmental biology, along with chemical, mechanical and electrical stimulation drives our development of novel biomaterials aimed at specifying the stem cell lineage within 3-dimensional (3D) tissue systems. This talk will cover the development of biological cues, advanced biomaterials, and scaffold designs for the regeneration of complex soft musculoskeletal tissue systems such as ligament, tendon, and muscle.

In Vitro Engineering of High Modulus Cartilage-Like Constructs.

To date, the outcomes of cartilage repair have been inconsistent and have frequently yielded mechanically inferior fibrocartilage, thereby increasing the chances of damage recurrence. Implantation of constructs with biochemical composition and mechanical properties comparable to natural cartilage could be advantageous for long-term repair. This study attempted to create such constructs, in vitro, using tissue engineering principles. Bovine synoviocytes were seeded on nonwoven polyethylene terephthalate fiber scaffolds and cultured in chondrogenic medium for 4 weeks, after which uniaxial compressive loading was applied using an in-house bioreactor for 1 h per day, at a frequency of 1 Hz, for a further 84 days. The initial loading conditions, determined from the mechanical properties of the immature constructs after 4 weeks in chondrogenic culture, were strains ranging between 13% and 23%. After 56 days (sustained at 84 days) of loading, the constructs were stained homogenously with Alcian blue and for type-II collagen. Dynamic compressive moduli were comparable to the high end values for native cartilage and proportional to Alcian blue staining intensity. We suggest that these high moduli values were attributable to the bioreactor setup, which caused the loading regime to change as the constructs developed, that is, the applied stress and strain increased with construct thickness and stiffness, providing continued sufficient cell stimulation as further matrix was deposited. Constructs containing cartilage-like matrix with response to load similar to that of native cartilage could produce long-term effective cartilage repair when implanted.

Creating tissues from textiles: scalable nonwoven manufacturing techniques for fabrication of tissue engineering scaffolds

Electrospun nonwovens have been used extensively for tissue engineering applications due to their inherent similarities with respect to fibre size and morphology to that of native extracellular matrix (ECM). However, fabrication of large scaffold constructs is time consuming, may require harsh organic solvents, and often results in mechanical properties inferior to the tissue being treated. In order to translate nonwoven based tissue engineering scaffold strategies to clinical use, a high throughput, repeatable, scalable, and economic manufacturing process is needed. We suggest that nonwoven industry standard high throughput manufacturing techniques (meltblowing, spunbond, and carding) can meet this need. In this study, meltblown, spunbond and carded poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nonwovens were evaluated as tissue engineering scaffolds using human adipose derived stem cells (hASC) and compared to electrospun nonwovens. Scaffolds were seeded with hASC and viability, proliferation, and differentiation were evaluated over the course of 3 weeks. We found that nonwovens manufactured via these industry standard, commercially relevant manufacturing techniques were capable of supporting hASC attachment, proliferation, and both adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation of hASC, making them promising candidates for commercialization and translation of nonwoven scaffold based tissue engineering strategies.

Single-cell mechanics – An experimental–computational method for quantifying the membrane–cytoskeleton elasticity of cells

The membrane–cytoskeleton system plays a major role in cell adhesion, growth, migration, and differentiation. F-actin filaments, cross-linkers, binding proteins that bundle F-actin filaments to form the actin cytoskeleton, and integrins that connect the actin cytoskeleton network to the cell plasma membrane and extracellular matrix are major cytoskeleton constituents. Thus, the cell cytoskeleton is a complex composite that can assume different shapes. Atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based techniques have been used to measure cytoskeleton material properties without much attention to cell shape. A recently developed surface chemical patterning method for long-term single-cell culture was used to seed individual cells on circular patterns. A continuum-based cell model, which uses as input the force–displacement response obtained with a modified AFM setup and relates the membrane–cytoskeleton elastic behavior to the cell geometry, while treating all other subcellular components suspended in the cytoplasmic liquid (gel) as an incompressible fluid, is presented and validated by experimental results. The developed analytical–experimental methodology establishes a framework for quantifying the membrane–cytoskeleton elasticity of live cells. This capability may have immense implications in cell biology, particularly in studies seeking to establish correlations between membrane–cytoskeleton elasticity and cell disease, mortality, differentiation, and migration, and provide insight into cell infiltration through nonwoven fibrous scaffolds. The present method can be further extended to analyze membrane–cytoskeleton viscoelasticity, examine the role of other subcellular components (e.g., nucleus envelope) in cell elasticity, and elucidate the effects of mechanical stimuli on cell differentiation and motility. Statement of SignificanceThis is the first study to decouple the membrane–cytoskeleton elasticity from cell stiffness and introduce an effective approach for measuring the elastic modulus. The novelty of this study is the development of new technology for quantifying the elastic stiffness of the membrane–cytoskeleton system of cells. This capability could have immense implications in cell biology, particularly in establishing correlations between various cell diseases, mortality, and differentiation with membrane–cytoskeleton elasticity, examining through-tissue cell migration, and understanding cell infiltration in porous scaffolds. The present method can be further extended to analyze membrane–cytoskeleton viscous behavior, identify the contribution of other subcellular components (e.g., nucleus envelope) to load sharing, and elucidate mechanotransduction effects due to repetitive compressive loading and unloading on cell differentiation and motility.