Non-structural Carbohydrates Research Articles

Emerging Insights into the Roles of the Rhizome-Culm System in Bamboo Shoot Development through Analysis of Non-Structural Carbohydrate Changes.

Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs) required for bamboo shoot development, the critical stage that determines the yield of a bamboo stand, originate from the parent bamboo with the complex underground system. However, the metabolic mechanism of NSCs in the rhizome-culm system during bamboo shoot development remains unclear. In this study, we focused on the changes of NSCs in the rhizome-culm system and used anatomical, physiological, and biochemical methods to investigate the metabolism of NSCs in bamboo shoots of Phyllostachys edulis and the role of NSCs supply in the parent bamboo at different ages. The results showed that NSCs were accumulated and consumed from the bottom to the top in a bamboo shoot, which was consistent with the developmental pattern. The starch granules were stored in advance. The bamboo sheath stored starch from the dormant stage of shoot buds. The functions of culms and rhizomes showed age-dependent differences. Adult culms showed the highest capacity to provide NSCs, with more stored NSCs and higher β-amylase activity. Conversely, young culms seemed to prefer their growth, while old culms tended to store starch. Accordingly, adult rhizomes preferred sugar transport due to the lowest starch storage, lower ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) activity, and higher β-amylase activity, while young and old rhizomes tended to prefer starch storage. These results provide a basis for further understanding of nutrient metabolism in bamboo stands.

Physiological, transcriptome and metabolome analyses provide molecular insights to seasonal development in Ginkgo biloba xylem

Ginkgo biloba’s wood has high economic value; however, little is known about the molecular response of its xylem seasonal development. Based on physiological change in secondary cell wall (SCW) components, non-structural carbohydrates (NC), and endogenous phytohormones (EP) concentrations during development seasons, we performed transcriptome and metabolome sequencing on current- and second-year xylem to explore the molecular physiological responses of Ginkgo developing xylem induced by seasonal effects. Results revealed that SCW component, NC, and EP showed distinct seasonal patterns in concentration change. The expression profiles of corresponding differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially abundant metabolites (DAMs) in phenylpropanoid (monolignol) biosynthesis (14 DEGs), plant hormone biosynthesis (10 DAMs), signaling (37 DEGs) and carbohydrate metabolism (37 DEGs and 8 DAMs) were revealed. Most of these DEGs were up-regulated in spring (May) to summer (July), while down-regulated in winter (December). Trend cluster showed that 15 DEGs in brassinolide (BR) biosynthesis and signaling, jasmonic acid (JA), and auxin (IAA) signaling were clustered into top 2 profiles with most DEGs in lignin biosynthesis. Correlation analysis indicated that BR concentration was negatively related with lignin content, while positively associated with 8 DEGs in lignin biosynthesis, suggesting that BR had a potential to coordinate lignin deposition. Additionally, the expression levels of DEGs in (abscisic acid) ABA signaling had positive association with those of DEGs related starch and sucrose biosynthesis, while had inverse correlation with DEGs related glucose and galactose biosynthesis. Also, ABA concentration was positively correlated with NC content, implying the dominant role of ABA in seasonal carbohydrate metabolism, conjoint analysis of DEGs and DAMs also supported this finding. Our study provided a new foundation for endogenous hormone-mediated seasonal development of xylem.

The Accumulation and Conversion of Non-Structural Carbohydrate in Branches and Leaves at Different Phenological Stages Determine the Fruit Yield of Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge

The Accumulation and Conversion of Non-Structural Carbohydrate in Branches and Leaves at Different Phenological Stages Determine the Fruit Yield of Xanthoceras sorbifolium Bunge

Exogenous Sucrose Confers Low Light Tolerance in Tomato Plants by Increasing Carbon Partitioning from Stems to Leaves.

Low light (LL) stress adversely affects plant growth and productivity. The role of exogenous sucrose in enhancing plant LL tolerance was investigated by spraying sucrose on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) leaves. This study employed physiological and molecular approaches to identify the underlying mechanisms. Exogenous sucrose activated sucrose hydrolysis-related enzyme activity and upregulated genes encoding sucrose and hexose transporters in mature leaves, decreasing endogenous sucrose levels and promoting sucrose unloading during LL. Stem-related genes associated with sucrose synthesis and transport were also upregulated, enhancing sucrose phloem loading. Furthermore, sucrose from stems activated sucrose unloading in sink leaves, forming a feed-forward loop to sustain sucrose flow during LL. This led to increased nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs), improved energy metabolism, and enhanced protein synthesis in leaves, ultimately boosting photosynthesis and fruit yield after light recovery. These findings highlight how exogenous sucrose enhances LL tolerance in tomatoes by increasing the transport of NSCs from stems to leaves.

Modified TAL expression in rice plant regulates yield components and grain quality in a N-rate dependent manner

Context or problemHigher-yield and superior-quality rice are the major goals in rice breeding and nitrogen management. Genetic modification combined with optimal nitrogen (N) fertilization is expected to realize it. Objective or research questionModification in transaldolase (TAL) expression alters both the number and pattern of vascular bundles in rice plants, but its interactions with N rate remains unknown. MethodsWe employed three representative lines with different expression levels of TAL in the same genetic background (Wuyunjing 7, WT), and analyzed their responses in dry matter accumulation (DMA), carbohydrate transport, grain filling, yield, yield components, and grain quality under a wide range of N rate. ResultsIncreased expression of TAL (OE) promoted rice yield by producing more spikelets per panicle and higher 1000-grain weight, while decreased expression of TAL lowered the seed setting rate and grain weight significantly. Under a fixed N rate, when TAL expression was altered, the direct path coefficients of the seed setting rate and 1000-grain weight to the yield were higher than other yield components, especially at a high N rate. Decreased expression of TAL (RNAi) significantly reduced the starch and non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) contents in the stems, but enhanced the soluble sugar retention, whereas increased expression of TAL enhanced the translocation of NSC. The grain weight at maturity and mean grain-filling rate (mg d−1) increased significantly along with the TAL expression, but their differences among RNAi, WT and OE narrowed at higher N rate. Decreased expression of TAL enhanced the apparent amylose content (ACC) and protein (PC), reduced the starch granule size, and caused a loose starch arrangement and elevated chalkiness, as a consequence, significantly reduced the peak viscosity, hot viscosity, final viscosity, and taste value in a N rate dependent manner. The taste values of OE and WT were similar and the highest value was attained under a moderate N rate. ConclusionsTAL expression plays an important role in the regulation of assimilate supply, grain filling, yield formation, and grain quality. Increased expression of TAL alleviates competition effect among the yield components and enhances the yield potential, especially under moderate to high N rate. Higher TAL expression combined with a moderate N rate improves ECQ. Implications or significanceTAL expression and N rate interacts to regulate yield components and quality. This finding provides meaningful knowledge to administering N rate and genetically modifying TAL expression in a rice variety.

Foliar non-structural carbohydrates and resprouting ability of woody species in a tropical dry forest

Diverse disturbances contribute to biomass loss in tropical dry forests (TDF), of which slash-and-burn agriculture (SBA) may be the most severe; it is practiced by large populations of residents. Plant species capable of resprouting in response to such disturbances often possess above-ground structures that survive and mobilize resources for resprouting, in addition to below-ground structures. In Brazilian TDF, woody species regenerating from stem pieces that persist after SBA events are common. In this study, we evaluated the foliar concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) and mineral nutrients during the first six months after an SBA event in all species that resprouted within the experimental area. Almost all the species resprouted exclusively from the stems. The measured nutrient concentrations did not change drastically after an SBA event. Two patterns were observed with respect to NSC concentrations among the species. Half of the studied species exhibited high concentrations of NSC before the SBA event, which gradually decreased three and six months after the disturbance. In contrast, the remaining species maintained consistent NSC concentrations throughout the study period. The cost of building new leaf tissue was similar for all species before the SBA event. However, after disturbance, the species invested different amounts of carbon into the new leaves. Those species that decreased NSC leaf concentration after SBA showed the highest regrowth intensity through the number of new tillers. Our results suggest that the intense translocation of NSC from the leaves before SBA may support the increased activity of the buds present in the remaining stem piece.

High resilience of campos rupestres plants to the interaction of drought and fire.

The concurrent impacts of multiple disturbances have the potential to modify ecosystem functioning by diminishing recovery capacity and resilience. Nevertheless, it remains uncertain how plant species from tropical communities respond to the cumulative effects of drought and fire. In this study, we evaluated the responses of six plant species from campos rupestres subjected to a mild drought followed by fire and tested if plants subjected to simulated drought show reductions in carbon uptake and depletion of non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) reserves, thus constraining their resprouting. We monitored monthly variations in leaf gas exchange and aboveground biomass over 18 months. Subsequently, an accidental fire occurred in the study area, leading us to collect samples of belowground structures for NSC analyses on the day of the burn. There were no differences in the frequency of resprouting between the above two conditions. Additionally, gas exchange in most species either remained stable or increased after the fire. Drought had no adverse effects on NSC reserves in the belowground structures and may have contributed to species resprouting after fire. The impact of drought pre-conditions on post-fire aboveground biomass was generally minor for most species, except Vellozia nivea, which displayed roughly a 5% reduction in biomass following the drought. Our findings highlight the remarkable resilience of campos rupestres species, even after enduring 18 months of reduced water availability and an unintended fire event. These species demonstrated the capacity to maintain their physiological functions and resprouting capacities after a fire event, underscoring their strong recovery potential.

The metabolism of nonstructural carbohydrates, lipids, and energy in two Cycas species with differential tolerance to unexpected freezing stress.

With the climate warming, the occurrence of freezing events is projected to increase in late spring and early autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Observation of morphological traits showed that Cycas panzhihuaensis was more tolerant to unexpected freezing stress than C. bifida. Energy balance is crucial for plant tolerance to stress. Here, we aimed to determine whether the different responses of the two species to the unpredicted freezing stress were associated with the metabolism of energy and related substances. The effects of unexpected freezing temperatures on C. panzhihuaensis and C. bifida were studied by measuring chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, energy charge and the profile of nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) and lipids. C. panzhihuaensis exhibited higher stability of photosynthetic machinery than C. bifida under unpredicted freezing events. Significant interaction between species and treatments were observed in the energy charge, the level of NSC and its most components and the amount of most lipid categories and lipid classes. The decrease of soluble sugar and the increase of neutral glycerolipids at the early freezing stage, the accumulation of membrane glycerolipids at the late freezing stage and the continuous decrease of energy charge during the freezing period were the characteristics of C. panzhihuaensis responding to unexpected freezing stress. The degradation of membrane glycerolipids and the continuous decrease of soluble sugar during the freezing period and the accumulation of neutral glycerolipids and energy charge at the late freezing stage represented the characteristics of C. bifida responses. The different freezing sensitivity between C. panzhihuaensis and C. bifida might be associated with the differential patterns of the metabolism of energy, NSC and lipids. C. panzhihuaensis possesses the potential to be introduced to the areas of higher latitudes and altitudes.

Effects of drought on non-structural carbohydrates and C, N, and P stoichiometric characteristics of Pinus yunnanensis seedlings

Effects of drought on non-structural carbohydrates and C, N, and P stoichiometric characteristics of Pinus yunnanensis seedlings

Tree carbon dynamics: what the age and availability of nonstructural carbohydrates can tell us about forest ecosystem resilience in a changing world.

Tree carbon dynamics: what the age and availability of nonstructural carbohydrates can tell us about forest ecosystem resilience in a changing world.

Assessing the influence of simulated ice storm-induced crown damage on nonstructural carbohydrates, wound closure, and radial growth of maple trees

We evaluated shoot nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) concentrations, stem wound closure, and radial growth of sugar maple ( Acer saccharum Marsh.) and red maple ( Acer rubrum L.) trees in a novel ice storm experiment in which five storm treatments (0, 6.4, 12.7, and 19.1 mm of radial ice accretion in 1 year and 12.7 mm of ice in two consecutive years) were applied within a mature northern hardwood forest. We tested for changes in physiology at two levels: (1) associated with plot-level ice treatments and (2) with crown damage classes of individual trees. Few differences in NSC or wound closure associated with treatment were found. Growth decreased for red maple in the medium and high treatments and sugar maple in the high treatment but no other treatments. Changes in physiology were more evident when assessed using crown damage classes. Two NSC components were elevated in sugar and red maples with high (≥50%) crown damage. Wound closure was less for red maples with high damage, and separation among damage classes was even greater for sugar maple. Red maples with moderate (<50%) and high crown damage showed gradually declining growth, whereas sugar maples with high damage showed ∼80% reduction in growth the first year after injury.

Stability in the leaf functional traits of understory herbaceous species after 12-yr of nitrogen addition in temperate larch plantations.

Leaf functional traits play critical roles in plant functioning. Although the functional traits of overstory trees have been extensively studied, minimal research has been conducted regarding understory species, despite the understory layer is an important component of temperate forests. Such insufficiency limit the broader understanding of processes and functions in forest ecosystems, particularly when under the increasing atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition. Here, we investigated the responses of 18 leaf functional traits in six understory herbaceous species within young and mature stands (three species per stand) in larch (Larix principis-rupprechtii) plantations that subjected to 12 years of anthropogenic N addition. We found that N addition did not significantly impact the photosynthetic traits of understory herbaceous species in either stand; it only led to increased chlorophyll content in Geum aleppicum Jacq. Similarly, with the exception of decreases in the predawn leaf water potential of Sanguisorba officinalis L., N addition did not significantly affect leaf hydraulic traits. With the exception of changes to adaxial epidermis thickness in Potentilla chinensis Ser. (decreased) and G. aleppicum (increased), N addition had negligible effects on leaf anatomical traits and specific leaf area, however, interspecific variations in the plasticity of leaf anatomical traits were observed. Stable responses to N addition were also observed for nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) and their components (soluble sugars and starch), with the exception of Polygonum divaricatum L., which exhibited increases in NSC. Overall, our results suggest that the functional traits of understory herbaceous species exhibit stability under conditions of long-term N enrichment in temperate plantations.

Anatomical structure and physiological characteristics of Robinia pseudoacacia of different stand ages

Drought intensity and frequency have been increased as a result of global warming. Exploring the drought resistance mechanism of Robinia pseudoacacia plantations of different stand ages on the Loess Plateau is crucial for understanding the stability of forest productivity in the region. We investigated anatomical traits, hydraulic function, and non-structural carbohydrate content of the xylem, as well as their association, in R. pseudoacacia plantations of different stand ages in a semi-arid region. The results showed that the vessel diameter, total pit membrane area, pit membrane area, vesture area, and vestured overlap of young and middle-aged stands were larger than those of mature stands, and the pit density was significantly lower in mature stands. Hydraulic conductivity was significantly related to vessel diameter, pit membrane area, and vesture area. Hydraulic conductivities of branches in young, middle-aged, and mature stands were 2.30, 2.12, and 0.76 kg·m-1·s-1·MPa-1, respectively, with embolism values of 54.5%, 53.8%, and 45.1%. Hydraulic conductivity was significantly related to soluble sugar and starch contents. The soluble sugar contents of branches in young, middle-aged and mature stands were 4.9%, 4.2%, and 3.8%, respectively. Xylem growth capacity of R. pseudoacacia in mature stand declined, resulting in the formation of small vessels with many small pits, which reduced hydraulic conductivity while maintaining hydraulic safety, resulting in a decrease of non-structural carbohydrates content. This study revealed the drought response mechanism of R. pseudoacacia plantations with different ages, providing a scientific foundation for the management and nurturing of R. pseudoacacia plantations on the Loess Plateau.

The Relationship between the Sugar Preference of Bacterial Pathogens and Virulence on Plants

Plant pathogenic bacteria colonize plant surfaces and inner tissues to acquire essential nutrients. Nonstructural sugars hold paramount significance among these nutrients, as they serve as pivotal carbon sources for bacterial sustenance. They obtain sugar from their host by diverting nonstructural carbohydrates en route to the sink or enzymatic breakdown of structural carbohydrates within plant tissues. Despite the prevalence of research in this domain, the area of sugar selectivity and preferences exhibited by plant pathogenic bacteria remains inadequately explored. Within this expository framework, our present review endeavors to elucidate the intricate variations characterizing the distribution of simple sugars within diverse plant tissues, thus influencing the virulence dynamics of plant pathogenic bacteria. Subsequently, we illustrate the apparent significance of comprehending the bacterial preference for specific sugars and sugar alcohols, postulating this insight as a promising avenue to deepen our comprehension of bacterial pathogenicity. This enriched understanding, in turn, stands to catalyze the development of more efficacious strategies for the mitigation of plant diseases instigated by bacterial pathogens.

Nutrient and Rumen Fermentation Studies of Indian Pasture Legumes for Sustainable Animal Feed Utilisation in Semiarid Areas

This study evaluated 5 annual and 11 perennial Indian pasture legumes species for their nutritive value, dry matter and mineral contents and in vitro fermentation parameters. Legume species differed significantly (p < 0.05) in various nutritional aspects such as organic matter, crude protein (CP), ether extract, fibres and protein fractions. Perennial Clitoria ternateaa had higher (p < 0.05) buffer soluble protein (477), while neutral detergent soluble protein was highest in annually grown Lablab purpureus (420 g/kg CP). Atylosia scarabaeoides (AS) had higher levels of nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs) (392 g/kg dry matter (DM)) than structural carbohydrates (SC) (367 g/kg DM). Its rapidly degradable fraction (51.7 g/kg (total carbohydrate) tCHO) was lower (p < 0.05) than other fractions of carbohydrates. Total digestible nutrients, digestible energy and metabolisable energy varied, with Desmodium virgatus (DV) having higher values and Stylosanthas seabrana (SSe) having the lowest. Predicted dry matter intake, digestible dry matter and relative feed value also showed significant differences (p < 0.05). Annual grasses such as Dolichos biflorus, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Rhynchosia minima (RM) were found to be better balanced with micro minerals. In vitro dry matter degradability, partition factor, short-chain fatty acids and microbial protein production of legumes varied significantly (p < 0.05). Gas and CH4 production (mL/g and mL/g (digestible DM) DDM) also varied, with Clitoria ternatea-blue having the highest gas production and C. ternatea -white (CT-w) and AS having lower CH4 production. Methane in total gas was low for DV, RM and CT-w (8.99%, 9.72% and 9.51%). Loss of DE and ME as CH4 varied (p < 0.05) among the legumes. Each legume offers unique benefits, potentially allowing for tailored combinations of annual and perennial legumes to optimize rumen feed efficiency.

Adaptive strategies to freeze-thaw cycles in branch hydraulics of tree species coexisting in a temperate forest

Freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs) limit the distribution and survival of temperate tree species. Tree species with different wood types coexist in temperate forests and are subjected to the same FTCs. It is essential to understand how these trees differentially cope with xylem hydraulic failure induced by FTCs in the field. The branch hydraulic traits and nonstructural carbohydrate concentration of six coexisting tree species in a temperate forest were measured from mid-winter to early spring when the FTCs occurred from January to April. The percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) was lower, and the water potential inducing a 50% loss of hydraulic conductivity (P50) was more negative in tracheid trees than in ring- and diffuse-porous trees, suggesting tracheid trees with narrow tracheid diameters showed less vulnerable to embolism and provided a lower degree of hydraulic failure during FTCs (stronger resistance). Ring-porous trees always showed lower hydraulic conductivity and higher PLC and P50, and these traits did not change during FTCs, suggesting that they might lose the hydraulic functions in winter and abandon the last year xylem. The P50 in diffuse-porous increased after several FTCs (frost fatigue), but that in tracheid species continued to increase (or even decrease) until the end of FTCs (69 cycles), suggesting that tracheid trees were less sensitive to frost fatigue than diffuse-porous trees. Soluble sugar concentration in deciduous trees negatively correlated with PLC at the end of FTCs, indicating that the effect of soluble sugar on refilling embolism occurred in early spring. While the soluble sugar concentration of deciduous trees decreased, that of two evergreen tracheid trees gradually increased, possibly due to the winter photosynthesis of evergreen leaves. Our results suggest temperate trees adopt different strategies to cope with the same FTCs. These findings enrich the understanding of plant hydraulics and carbon physiology in winter and provide insights into the response of different species coexisting in temperate forests under climate change.

Seasonal variation in C:N:P stoichiometry, nonstructural carbohydrates, and carbon isotopes of two coniferous pioneer tree species in subtropical China.

The characteristics of C:N:P stoichiometry, nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) content, and C stable isotopes and their relationships affect plant responses to environmental changes and are critical to understanding the ecosystem carbon and water cycles. We investigated the water use strategies and physiological changes of two pioneer tree species (Pinus armandii and Pinus yunnanensis) in response to seasonal drought in subtropical China. The seasonal variation in needle δ13C values, C:N:P stoichiometry, and NSC contents of the two tree species were studied in 25-year-old plantation in central Yunnan Province. The needle δ13C values of both species were highest in summer. Soluble sugars, starch and NSC content of the two tree species decreased from spring to winter, while there was no significant difference in the seasonal variation of soluble sugars/starch in P. armandii needles, the maximum soluble sugars/starch in P. yunnanensis needles was in autumn. In addition, the C, N, and P contents of the needles and the C:N and C:P ratios of the two species showed different seasonal fluctuations, whereas the N:P ratio decreased with the season. The C:N:P stoichiometry and NSC content of the needles showed significant correlations, whereas the needle δ13C was weakly correlated with C:N:P stoichiometry and NSC content. Phenotypic plasticity analysis and principal component analysis revealed that the needle nutrient characteristics (NSC and P contents and N:P ratio) and needle δ13C values were critical indicators of physiological adaptation strategies of P. armandii and P. yunnanensis for coping with seasonal variation. These results increase our understanding of the water-use characteristics of the two pioneer tree species and the dynamic balance between the NSC, C, N, and P contents of the needles.

Circadian characterization of non-structural carbohydrate dynamics in the Caatinga pioneer tree Erythrina velutina during late seedling establishment

Circadian characterization of non-structural carbohydrate dynamics in the Caatinga pioneer tree Erythrina velutina during late seedling establishment

Effects of mepiquat chloride and plant population density on leaf photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism in upland cotton

BackgroundMepiquat chloride (MC) application and plant population density (PPD) increasing are required for modern cotton production. However, their interactive effects on leaf physiology and carbohydrate metabolism remain obscure. This study aimed to examine whether and how MC and PPD affect the leaf morpho-physiological characteristics, and thus final cotton yield. PPD of three levels (D1: 2.25 plants·m−2, D2: 4.5 plants·m−2, and D3: 6.75 plants·m−2) and MC dosage of two levels (MC0: 0 g·ha−2, MC1: 82.5 g·ha−2) were combined to create six treatments. The dynamics of nonstructual carbohydrate concentration, carbon metabolism-related enzyme activity, and photosynthetic attributes in cotton leaves were examined during reproductive growth in 2019 and 2020.ResultsAmong six treatments, the high PPD of 6.75 plants·m−2 combined with MC application (MC1D3) exhibited the greatest seed cotton yield and biological yield. The sucrose, hexose, starch, and total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) concentrations peaked at the first flowering (FF) stage and then declined to a minimum at the first boll opening (FBO) stage. Compared with other treatments, MC1D3 improved starch and TNC concentration by 5.4% ~ 88.4%, 7.8% ~ 52.0% in 2019, and by 14.6% ~ 55.9%, 13.5% ~ 39.7% in 2020 at the FF stage, respectively. Additionally, MC1D3 produced higher transformation rates of starch and TNC from the FF to FBO stages, indicating greater carbon production and utilization efficiency. MC1D3 displayed the maximal specific leaf weight (SLW) at the FBO stage, and the highest chlorophyll a (Chl a), Chl b, and Chl a + b concentration at the mid-late growth phase in both years. The Rubisco activity with MC1D3 was 2.6% ~ 53.2% higher at the flowering and boll setting stages in both years, and 2.4% ~ 52.7% higher at the FBO stage in 2020 than those in other treatments. These results provided a explanation of higher leaf senescence-resistant ability in MC1D3.ConclusionIncreasing PPD coupled with MC application improves cotton yield by enhancing leaf carbohydrate production and utilization efficiency and delaying leaf senescence.

Korean Pines Demonstrate Cold Resilience through Non-Structural Carbohydrate Concentrations despite Light Deprivation during the Growing Season

Korean Pines Demonstrate Cold Resilience through Non-Structural Carbohydrate Concentrations despite Light Deprivation during the Growing Season