Nonstandard Schedules Research Articles

Parental Work Schedules and Child‐Care Arrangements in Low‐Income Families

ObjectiveThis study analyzes the relationships between parental working schedules and several aspects of child‐care arrangements for young children in low‐income single‐mother and two‐partner households.BackgroundChildren whose parents work nonstandard schedules may hold child‐care arrangements that are less stimulating or developmentally productive than their peers whose parents work standard schedules. This study builds on previous research by expanding the set of outcomes under analysis, accounting for coscheduling in two‐partner households, revising traditional shift definitions, and using recent, nationally representative data.MethodThe 2012 National Survey of Early Care and Education is used to develop work schedule typologies. Regression methods are employed to evaluate the relationships between these schedules and the use of center‐based, home‐based, and relative care; continuity of care; and complexity of care (a new measure introduced as an alternative to care multiplicity).ResultsNonstandard schedules are associated with increased child‐care complexity and decreased continuity and the types of care that children receive in single‐mother households but less so in two‐partner households. In two‐partner households the largest effects are in households in which both partners work standard schedules; children in these households receive more nonparental care and are in more complex child‐care arrangements.ConclusionFindings point to the cumulative disadvantage accruing to the children of single mothers, especially those working nontraditional shifts.ImplicationsLabor market inequalities yield consequences for children's development and intergenerational stratification.

Flexibility or Constraint? The Implications of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Nonstandard Schedules for Children’s Behavioral Outcomes

Approximately 17.7% of the U.S. workforce is employed in a nonstandard schedule. Research thus far indicates that these schedules negatively influence children’s behavioral development. However, few studies examine the roles of the child’s gender and age. To broaden understanding of the relationships between nonstandard schedules and child behavior, and how these relationships may depend on the gender and age of the child, I analyze data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-1979 and its Child Supplement from 1992 to 2006. My findings show that some types of parental nonstandard shifts, such as evening and night shifts, are associated with fewer behavioral problems among children, though these results depend on the gender and age of the child. In contrast, parents’ rotating and split shifts are associated with more behavior problems among children, indicating that it is relatively unstable and unpredictable work schedules that may have the most harmful associations with children’s outcomes.

Parental work characteristics and diet quality among pre-school children in dual-parent households: results from a population-based cohort in Taiwan.

To examine the relationship between parental work characteristics and diet quality among pre-school children in dual-parent households. Cross-sectional study. Parental work characteristics were measured by the types of combined parental work schedules and work hours. The main outcome variables included meal eating habits as well as 'health-conscious food' and 'unhealthy non-core food' dietary patterns derived by using principal component analysis. Sociodemographic covariates were considered to reduce confounding and selection biases. The Taiwan Birth Cohort Study, Taiwan. A population-based sample of 18 046 children. Multiple regression analyses indicated that compared with having both parents working standard schedules, having at least one parent who worked non-standard schedules was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of a child eating breakfast every day and a higher consumption of unhealthy non-core foods. If only one parent was employed and worked standard schedules, the children demonstrated greater odds of having home-prepared dinner most of the time. The mother's working long hours was associated with lower odds of eating breakfast every day, more frequent consumption of unhealthy non-core foods and a lower frequency of healthy food consumption. The findings raise concern that parents' non-standard work schedules and mother's long working hours have negative effects on diet quality of pre-school children. Policy implications include the need for a multifaceted approach to supporting working parents so as to create healthier food environments.

Parental nonstandard work schedules during infancy and children’s BMI trajectories

BACKGROUND: Empirical evidence has demonstrated adverse associations between parental nonstandard work schedules (i.e., evenings, nights, or weekends) and child developmental outcomes. However, there are mixed findings concerning the relationship between parental nonstandard employment and children’s body mass index (BMI), and few studies have incorporated information on paternal work schedules. OBJECTIVE: This paper investigated BMI trajectories from early to middle childhood (ages 3–11) by parental work schedules at 9 months of age, using nationally representative cohort data from the United Kingdom. This study is the first to examine the link between nonstandard work schedules and children’s BMI in the United Kingdom. METHODS: We used data from the Millennium Cohort Study (2001‒2013, n = 13,021) to estimate trajectories in BMI, using data from ages 3, 5, 7, and 11 years. Joint parental work schedules and a range of biological, socioeconomic, and psychosocial covariates were assessed in the initial interviews at 9 months. RESULTS: Compared to children in two-parent families where parents worked standard shifts, we found steeper BMI growth trajectories for children in two-parent families where both parents worked nonstandard shifts and children in single-parent families whose mothers worked a standard shift. Fathers’ shift work, compared to standard shifts, was independently associated with significant increases in BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Future public health initiatives focused on reducing the risk of rapid BMI gain in childhood can potentially consider the disruptions to family processes resulting from working nonstandard hours. CONTRIBUTION: Children in families in which both parents work nonstandard schedules had steeper BMI growth trajectories across the first decade of life. Fathers’ nonstandard shifts were independently associated with increases in BMI.

Smoked marijuana attenuates performance and mood disruptions during simulated night shift work

Individuals who work nonstandard schedules, such as rotating or night shifts, are more susceptible to workplace injuries, performance decrements, and reduced productivity. This population is also almost twice as likely to use illicit drugs as individuals working a standard day shift. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of smoked marijuana on performance, mood, and sleep during simulated shift work. Ten experienced marijuana smokers completed this 23-day, within-participant residential study. They smoked a single marijuana cigarette (0, 1.9, 3.56% Δ9-THC) one hour after waking for three consecutive days under two shift conditions: day shift and night shift. Shifts alternated three times during the study, and shift conditions were separated by an ‘off’ day. When participants smoked placebo cigarettes, psychomotor performance and subjective-effect ratings were altered during the night shift compared to the day shift: performance (e.g., vigilance) and a few subjective ratings were decreased (e.g., “Self-Confident”), whereas other ratings were increased (e.g., “Tired”). Objective and subjective measures of sleep were also disrupted, but to a lesser extent. Marijuana attenuated some performance, mood, and sleep disruptions: participants performed better on vigilance tasks, reported being less miserable and tired and sleep a greater number of minutes. Limited negative effects of marijuana were noted. These data demonstrate that abrupt shift changes produce performance, mood, and sleep decrements during night shift work and that smoked marijuana containing low to moderate Δ9-THC concentrations can offset some of these effects in frequent marijuana smokers.

Nonstandard Work Schedules, Family Dynamics, and Mother-Child Interactions During Early Childhood.

The rising number of parents who work nonstandard schedules has led to a growing body of research concerned with what this trend means for children. The negative outcomes for children of parents who work nonstandard schedules are thought to arise from the disruptions these schedules place on family life, and thus, the types of parenting that support their children's development, particularly when children are young. Using a nationally representative sample of two-parent families (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth cohort, n = 3,650), this study examined whether mothers' and their partners' nonstandard work schedules were associated with mothers' parenting when children were 2 and 4 years old. Structural equation models revealed that mothers' and their partners' nonstandard work schedules were associated with mothers' lower scores on measures of positive and involved parenting. These associations were mediated by fathers' lower levels of participation in cognitively supportive parenting and greater imbalance in cognitively supportive tasks conducted by mothers versus fathers.

Nonstandard Work Schedules and Private Safety Nets Among Working Mothers

Although the implications of nonstandard work schedules (work outside of the typical 9 – 5, Monday – Friday schedule) for individuals and families are increasingly well understood, it is unclear how such schedules are associated with perceived social support for working mothers. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study and a variety of methodological approaches, we found mixed evidence for this relationship. Results from ordinary least squares and propensity‐weighted models suggest that working a nonstandard schedule is associated with weaker perceived support, particularly among those who are Black and less educated, and those who exclusively work such a schedule. Conversely, results from fixed‐effects models suggest that changing from a standard to a nonstandard schedule is associated with modest increases in perceived social support. These results add nuance to our understanding of the implications of nonstandard work schedules for families.

Effects of Non-Standard Schedules on the Life of BPO Employees

Objectives: The article uses a sample of 200 employees from the BPO industry in Chennai to find the impact of non-standard work schedules on the family life of employees comparing the employees based on their age, gender, Years married, Years in non-nonstandard schedule and Hierarchy. Method: Lickert scale analysis is used to collect data from the respondents and questions pertaining to demographic variables and non-standard schedule were queried to get information. The data collected for family life were based on questions pertaining to family responsibilities, marital life and growth of children. T-test and one way-Anova are the Statistical tools that are used for the analyses. Findings: The Findings suggest that the effect of non-standard schedules on demographic variables differed with age, gender, years married, years in nonstandard schedule and hierarchy. The effect of non-standard schedule on the family life differed significantly among the different groups. The effect was found to be more in the age groups of 46-55 years and above 55 years. The effect was more in the age groups of 46-55 years and above 55 years as the mean value is 85.4 and 76 respectively. The tests showed a significant difference between male and female as there was a significant mean difference of 7.1. The effect was more in the group where in the individuals were married for more than 7 Years and married for less than 1 year. There was no significant difference on the effect of non-standard schedule among the employee’s years in non-standard schedule and hierarchy however there was slight differences among the different groups. Application/Improvements: The study enables organizations to understand the problems faced by the employee of BPO working in the non-standard schedules. The study is an insight for the employers to know the effect of non-standard schedules across the different category of employees based on their age, gender, marital years, years in non-standard schedule and position. This study would in turn guide the organizations to bring about measures that could prevent the problems occurring due to shift work.

Work Schedules and Work–Family Conflict Among Dual Earners in Finland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom

Many European families are affected by the 24/7 economy, but relatively little is known about how working parents experience nonstandard hours. The aim of this study was to analyze the possible associations of dual earners’ work schedules and other work-related factors with their experience of time- and strain-based work–family conflict. These phenomena were examined among dual earners living in Finland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, countries that differ in working time practices and policies. Multigroup structural equation modeling was used to analyze cross-cultural data on dual earners with children aged 0 to 12 years ( N = 1,000). The results showed that working nonstandard schedules was associated with increased time-based work–family conflict, but only among Finnish and British parents. Poorer financial situation, working longer hours, more time spent working at very high speed, and lower work satisfaction were associated with both types of work–family conflict in all countries.

Work–family conflict among Black, White, and Hispanic men and women

ABSTRACTAre there racial/ethnic differences in work–family conflict? Using a nationally representative survey of Americans, we analyze differences in work–family conflict among Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics and then utilize an intersectional approach, disaggregating men and women within each racial/ethnic group. Using structural equation modeling, we find that the usual predictors of conflict – family and work characteristics – have varied effects on work–family conflict among men and women of different racial/ethnic groups. Nonstandard schedules were uniformly linked to increased work-to-family conflict among all respondents, regardless of subgroup. Our findings reveal the merits of intersectional approaches, and suggest the need for theoretical models of the work–family interface that better reflect the experiences of men and women of color.

Child care assistance and nonstandard work schedules

Child care is a necessary work support for many American families, but can be prohibitively expensive for those with low incomes. The federal government provides assistance through direct child care subsidies, but only a fraction of eligible families are in receipt. One factor that may limit access to child care assistance is work schedule. Research suggests that mothers with nonstandard work schedules use relative care more and day care centers less than those with standard work schedules. Research also shows that child care subsidies are disproportionately used for day care centers. This suggests that mothers who work nonstandard schedules may be less likely to receive child care assistance, but little empirical work addresses this question directly. Using data from a cohort of urban, unmarried mothers, this study explores the direct and indirect relationship between work schedule and receipt of child care assistance. The findings suggest that nonstandard work schedules reduce the odds of receiving child care assistance; a relationship mediated entirely by less day care center use among nonstandard schedule workers. The results imply that more flexible child care assistance is needed to meet the needs of these workers, possibly provided outside of the direct-subsidy system.

Parenthood, child care, and nonstandard work schedules in Europe

ABSTRACTAn increasing proportion of the European labor force works in the evening, at night or on weekends. Because nonstandard work schedules are associated with a number of negative outcomes for families and children, parents may seek to avoid such schedules. However, for parents with insufficient access to formal child care, working nonstandard hours or days may be an adaptive strategy used to manage child-care needs. It enables ‘split-shift’ parenting, where parents work alternate schedules, allowing one of the two to be at home looking after the children. This study examines the prevalence of nonstandard work schedules among parents and nonparents in 22 European countries. Specifically, we ask whether the provision of formal child care influences the extent to which parents of preschool-aged children work nonstandard schedules. Using data from the European Social Survey and multilevel models, we find evidence that the availability of formal child care reduces nonstandard work among parents. This indicates that access to formal child care enables parents to work standard schedules. To the extent that nonstandard work schedules are negatively associated with child well-being, access to formal child care protects children from the adverse effects of their parents’ evening and night work.

Non-standard work schedules, gender, and parental stress

BACKGROUND: Working non-standard hours changes the temporal structure of family life, constraining the time that family members spend with one another and threatening individuals' well-being. However, the empirical research on the link between stress and non-standard schedules has provided mixed results. Some studies have indicated that working non-standard hours is harmful whereas others have suggested that working atypical hours might facilitate the balance between family and work. Moreover, there is some evidence that the association between stress and non-standard employment has different implications for men and women. Objective: This paper examines the association between non-standard work schedules and stress among dual-earner couples with children. Two research questions are addressed. First, do predictability of the schedule and time flexibility moderate the link between non-standard work hours and stress? Second, do non-standard schedules affect men's and women's perceptions of stress differently? Methods: We use a sample of 1,932 working parents from the Canadian 2010 General Social Survey, which includes a time-use diary. A sequential logit regression analysis stratified by gender is employed to model two types of result. First, we estimate the odds of being stressed versus not being stressed. Second, for all respondents feeling stressed, we estimate the odds of experiencing high levels versus moderate levels of stress. Results: Our analysis shows that the link between non-standard working hours and perceived stress differs between mothers and fathers. First, fathers with non-standard schedules appear more likely to experience stress than those working standard hours, although the results are not significant. Among mothers, having a non-standard schedule is associated with a significantly lower risk of experiencing stress. Second, the analysis focusing on the mediating role of flexibility and predictability indicates that predictability is more important than flexibility. Workers with non-standard predictable schedules exhibit a lower risk of being stressed than those with non-standard unpredictable hours. Work flexibility does not seem to bring any additional advantage to women. However, it is linked to higher odds of being stressed for fathers, particularly among those having non-standard schedules. Language: en

Alcohol use in shiftworkers

It has been suggested that shiftworkers may consume alcohol to help them sleep, resulting in greater consumption. A large study in Australian workers suggested that those on non-standard schedules (outside 8am–6pm, Monday–Friday) do not drink more, but are at increased odds of binge drinking (heavy periods of drinking followed by abstinence) than workers on standard schedules. However, differences in types of non-standard schedules were not examined in the study. The current study examined the alcohol intake of Australian shiftworkers on fixed and rotating shifts. Shiftworkers (n=118, age=43.4±9.9y, 68% male) on 12h-rotating (n=29), 8h-rotating (n=29), morning (n=33) and night (n=27) schedules from printing, postal, nursing and oil industries participated. They completed a Cancer Council Dietary Questionnaire, recording frequency and amount of alcohol consumed on average per day over the preceding year. They also completed a shortened Standard Shiftwork Index, including questions on shift schedule, sleep duration, tiredness, gender and age. Average alcohol consumption was 9.6±13.1 standard drinks/week. One in six reported using alcohol as a sleep aid between shifts at least sometimes and nearly one third reported consuming 12 or more drinks in 24h. Alcohol consumption was higher for males and decreased with age. Controlling for gender and age, there were no significant differences between shift types in standard drinks/week (p=0.50). However, those on 12-h rotating shifts consumed more drinks per 24h (p=0.04) and had less sleep (p<0.001). Results support the suggestion that shiftworkers are likely to binge drink, particularly younger, male workers and those on long, rotating shifts. Alcohol use in shiftworkers may put increased pressure on already vulnerable physiological systems.

Nonstandard working schedules and health: the systematic search for a comprehensive model.

BackgroundTheoretical models on shift work fall short of describing relevant health-related pathways associated with the broader concept of nonstandard working schedules. Shift work models neither combine relevant working time characteristics applicable to nonstandard schedules nor include the role of rest periods and recovery in the development of health complaints. Therefore, this paper aimed to develop a comprehensive model on nonstandard working schedules to address these shortcomings.MethodsA literature review was conducted using a systematic search and selection process. Two searches were performed: one associating the working time characteristics time-of-day and working time duration with health and one associating recovery after work with health. Data extracted from the models were used to develop a comprehensive model on nonstandard working schedules and health.ResultsFor models on the working time characteristics, the search strategy yielded 3044 references, of which 26 met the inclusion criteria that contained 22 distinctive models. For models on recovery after work, the search strategy yielded 896 references, of which seven met the inclusion criteria containing seven distinctive models. Of the models on the working time characteristics, three combined time-of-day with working time duration, 18 were on time-of-day (i.e. shift work), and one was on working time duration. The model developed in the paper has a comprehensive approach to working hours and other work-related risk factors and proposes that they should be balanced by positive non-work factors to maintain health. Physiological processes leading to health complaints are circadian disruption, sleep deprivation, and activation that should be counterbalanced by (re-)entrainment, restorative sleep, and recovery, respectively, to maintain health.ConclusionsA comprehensive model on nonstandard working schedules and health was developed. The model proposes that work and non-work as well as their associated physiological processes need to be balanced to maintain good health. The model gives researchers a useful overview over the various risk factors and pathways associated with health that should be considered when studying any form of nonstandard working schedule.

Nonstandard parental employment schedules and father involvement

This study assesses the impact of nonstandard employment schedules (shift work) on parenting among US fathers of young children in dual-earner couples. The outcomes examined include total caregiving, caregiving without the mother present, and the elements of father involvement proposed by Pleck: positive engagement, warmth, and control. Models with latent variables and with lagged dependent variables are estimated using three waves of nationally representative data from the Early Child Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort. The results indicate that employment scheduling mainly shapes the context in which involvement takes place. Compared to dual-earner couples who are each employed during the day, fathers in couples in which at least one parent has a nonstandard schedule tend to care for their children more in the mother's absence. To a more limited extent, they also do more caregiving overall. These effects are most conclusively found when the father works during the day and the mother works during the evening, when the mother works during the day but the father works a night, split, rotating, or other shift, and when both parents have nonstandard schedules. Parental work schedules, however, have little impact on father involvement aside from care.

Schedule preferences, congruence and employee outcomes in unionized shift workers

Purpose– Employees working nonstandard schedules outside the daytime hours of the Monday-Friday work week are increasing. Using Social Exchange Theory (SET), the purpose of this paper is to hypothesize relationships between scheduling preferences, attitudes, and retention indicators.Design/methodology/approach– Survey data were collected from 343 US Postal Service mail processors (day, evening, or night shift; all shifts working weekends) from three cities. Multivariate analysis of covariance and multiple linear regression were used to test hypotheses related to participants’ perceptions of scheduling preferences and attitudes.Findings– The authors found that preferences and attitudes toward shift worked had stronger relationships with each other and employee retention indicators for the night and evening shifts than the day shift, and these same relationships were stronger for the day shift when focussing on days of the week worked.Research limitations/implications– Although limited by generalizability concerns, this study provides a distinctive application of SET to work schedules and offers a unique perspective on how working nonstandard days and nonstandard times, individually, impact the employment relationship.Practical implications– Better work schedule management, with increased flexibility and control, may be one way of reducing negative employee reactions to nonstandard schedules.Originality/value– This study goes beyond the typical examinations of standard vs nonstandard shifts, to study multiple nonstandard shifts and examines the relationships of these schedules on employee retention variables, focussing on both shift and weekend work.

Non-Standard Work Schedules and Childbearing in the Netherlands: A Mixed-Method Couple Analysis

This study examined the effect of working at non-standard times on the transition to first and second childbirth. Using quantitative couple data from two waves of the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study ( N = 742) and semi-structured qualitative interviews ( N = 29), we found a lower probability of having a first child when the female partner was engaged in non-standard schedules, and a higher likelihood of second childbirth for couples where either partner worked in a non-standard schedule. In line with expectations about the institutional and normative context of the Netherlands, we concluded that women adjusted their work schedules to their fertility plans and that couples had a preference for the personal care of their children rather than relying on formal care arrangements. Non-standard schedules served as a means to achieve this.

Scheduling challenges among workers in low-wage hourly jobs: similarities and differences among workers in standard- and nonstandard-hour jobs

Work schedules are a central theme in the work–family challenges of low-wage hourly workers. Yet, research on scheduling patterns among this worker population has primarily focused on nonstandard schedules. We know very little about the scheduling patterns of workers in hourly jobs with standard fixed schedules. Knowledge about the key scheduling challenges by schedule type is necessary to develop targeted workplace solutions, such as flexible work arrangements, to enhance work–life fit among workers in low-wage hourly jobs. Using the 2008 National Study of the Changing Workforce, bivariate and multivariate analyses were employed to determine (1) the prevalence of rigid, unpredictable and unstable work schedules among low-wage hourly workers employed in jobs with standard and nonstandard schedules and whether there is variation in these scheduling practices among full- and part-time workers; and (2) the individual or job characteristics that influence the odds of experiencing rigid, unpredictable or unstable work schedules. Results indicate that rigid and unpredictable schedule practices are most prevalent among low-wage hourly workers in full-time standard-hour jobs and part-time nonstandard-hour jobs, while unstable scheduling practices are most prevalent among hourly workers in full- and part-time nonstandard-hour jobs. Implications and limitations of the research are discussed.

Non-standard Work and Rural Low-Income Mothers: Making It Work

Work is an integral part of life in the United States and balancing work and family life can be a difficult task for many families made even harder to accomplish when a mother is low-income, living in a rural area, and working non-standard hours. Non-standard work hours include weekends, nights, rotating shifts, or split shifts. Using qualitative data from the longitudinal Rural Families Speak research project, this paper explored how rural low-income mothers who work non-standard schedules access and manage resources to try to balance the demands of work and family life. Interpreted through a family resource management lens, the results illuminate critical resources that allow families to manage work and family life while highlighting the demands the families often faced. Critical resources included accessing informal social support, managing work and family time, and seeking employment that supports work and family balance. Demands that threatened work and family balance included lack of flexibility in available resources and employment which make it difficult to balance work and family. Findings suggest the importance of developing community based programs to support both work and family as well educating employers on ways to support their employees.