Nonresident Parents Research Articles

Relocation following parental separation

Each year many families relocate to live in new places, but disputes will not usually arise over this when the family is intact because the two parents, and perhaps the children, will reach the decision about shifting together. Nevertheless the move will mean these children are likely to experience the loss of familiar surroundings and close friendships, need to change (pre)schools and start afresh with many aspects of their lives. It is when the parents are already living apart that a proposed relocation by one of them might mean the Courts are called upon to examine the interests at stake and determine the outcome. Relocation in this context has particular poignancy for the children involved because, if their parent's application to relocate is approved by the Court, this might marginalise the role of their other parent in their life.It is not, of course, uncommon for separated parents to have to move in the aftermath of their relationship breakdown as they re-establish themselves in separate households and negotiate their children's care and contact arrangements. However, when the proposed relocation by the resident parent involves moving such a distance from the non-resident parent that contact visits become problematic, then the potential for a major dispute exists. This is particularly so when there has been a pattern of frequent contact and the non-resident parent refuses to acquiesce in the move. While these cases can be very difficult to resolve by agreement, some separated parents are able to negotiate the relocation without seeking recourse to the legal system.

Child Support, Father–Child Contact, and Preteens’ Involvement with Nonresidential Fathers: Racial/Ethnic Differences

This study examined how child support, frequency of contact with children, and the relationship between nonresidential parents influenced preteens' reports of the involvement of fathers and mothers in their life. Data are from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY79) that has followed the children of NLSY mothers from birth into their twenties. Results showed that increases in child support and in contact with the child over time after separation are linked to a better coparental relationship when children are age 11 or 12. This better relationship between parents is, in turn, associated with greater involvement of both mothers and nonresidential fathers with their children.

Adolescents With Two Nonresident Biological Parents: Living Arrangements, Parental Involvement, and Well-Being

We know little about children who have two living nonresident biological parents. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study examines the diverse living arrangements of U.S. adolescents in this situation, the kinds of relationships they have with each of their nonresident parents, and how these living arrangements are associated with adolescent well-being. Differences between these adolescents (N = 502) and those who have one nonresident biological parent (N = 4746) are also examined. Results point to certain groups of adolescents with two nonresident parents who are at particular risk of exhibiting higher levels of behavior problems (those living alone or with an aunt and uncle) or who, alternatively, are faring comparatively better (those living with biological relative caregivers or two nonbiological parent figures).

Emotional Supportiveness and the Union Transitions of Married and Unmarried Parents

As increasing numbers of children are born to unmarried parents, there is a growing need to understand the dynamics of these unions, including their quality, stability, and marriage formation. One aspect of quality is the extent to which partners are emotionally supportive of one another, and this study examines the association of this interdependent emotional supportiveness with couples' union transitions. Using the first two waves of the Fragile Families survey, the analysis compares married, unmarried cohabiting, and unmarried nonresident parents. It finds that couples where neither partner is supportive, as well as some couples where only one partner is supportive, have lower chances of maintaining a stable union and, for unmarried couples, of forming a marriage. For both transitions, active forms of supportiveness appear more salient than verbal expressions of support. This study indicates that couples benefit from active and interdependent emotional support, suggesting that programs and policy aimed at strengthening the relationships of unmarried parents should consider the emotional equity between partners.

Working Hard to Resist a 'Bad Mother' Label

Drawing upon interview data from a study investigating the experiences of 20 non-resident mothers in the UK, this article explores the narratives of two participants, one who volunteered to become the non-resident parent and one who lost residence against her will. The central focus of the article is concerned with participants' discursive management of their atypical situation. Specific attention is paid to the different ways in which these women presented their situations and how they positioned themselves in relation to dominant cultural scripts surrounding motherhood. It is argued that non-resident mothers are at risk of isolation as a consequence of social stigma and this may pose barriers to their taking a full and active part in the lives of their children. Suggestions are made whereby social workers might play a useful role in facilitating and supporting non-resident mothers within their locality. The issues raised have relevance for other western jurisdictions operating within a framework of gender-neutral family policy because, the number of non-resident mothers can be expected to rise in line with high family breakdown and divorce rates.

Children's care and living arrangements in a high HIV prevalence area in rural South Africa

The objectives of this study were to describe the care and living arrangements of children in rural South Africa, focusing on differences between maternal, paternal and double orphans and non-orphans and to assess the prevalence and characteristics of ‘child-only’ households and ‘child- and elderly-only’ households in this setting. We analysed data from a longitudinal demographic information system using Mantel–Haenszel adjusted odds ratios and logistic regression. The prevalence of orphanhood almost doubled over the period 2000–2005. Maternal and double orphanhood prevalence increased more rapidly than paternal orphanhood, although most orphans are paternal orphans. Responsibility for paternal orphans' school fees and households is taken disproportionately by mothers. There is no evidence that it falls disproportionately to the young or elderly. Responsibility for maternal and double orphans' care is spread between different individuals with different ages, although the elderly have increased odds and fathers have decreased odds compared to non-orphans. Sixteen per cent of double orphans live in sibling-headed households, and most of these heads are over 18 years old. A high proportion of all children are responsible for their own day-to-day care and maternal orphans are more likely than non-orphans to care for themselves (age-adjusted). Seven per cent of maternal and double orphans and 2% of non- and paternal orphans live in ‘child- and elderly-only’ households. Two per cent of maternal and paternal orphans live in ‘child-only’ households, compared to 1% of non-orphans. Most of these children's school fees are the responsibility of non-resident parents. Understanding the reality of care and living arrangements is important to ensure that the needs of all children are met.

Should Child Support Obligations Continue for Children Attending College?

Beliefs regarding nonresidential parents' obligation to assist with college expenses were examined using a factorial vignette design with a random sample of 407 participants. Obligations to assist continue providing child support for children beyond the age of majority were contingent upon children attending college. However, only 52% of respondents believed that the nonresidential parent should continue paying child support for children in college. Differing obligation beliefs were largely rooted in divergent childrearing philosophies. This suggests that college support laws may interfere with what the U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly asserted is a fundamental parental right to direct children's upbringing, including education, without undue governmental interference.

RELOCATION, RESEARCH, AND FORENSIC EVALUATION, PART I: EFFECTS OF RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY ON CHILDREN OF DIVORCE1

The issue of relocation presents courts and child custody evaluators with dilemmas on the issue of allowing a child to move with a parent to a new community and how to craft long‐distance parenting plans if relocation is allowed. The issue of the potential effects of residential moves on children of divorce has focused on the importance of the child–nonresidential parent relationship. The research literature on the effects of residential moves, or relocation, on children of divorce has not been fully integrated into the examination of this issue and its relevance for the child custody evaluation. The literature shows residential mobility is a general risk factor for children of divorce and this is a starting point for the custody evaluation, but it is not a basis for bias or a presumption against relocation. Predicting a child's adjustment to relocating or not relocating requires a careful and contextual investigation of the child and family circumstances. The research literature is a helpful frame of reference.

Facilitating Factors for Nonresident Parents' Financial Provisions for Children in Hong Kong

This study examines the facilitating factors for nonresident parents' financial provisions for children among the Chinese in Hong Kong. It found that financial provisions from nonresident parents are subject to economic and ideological as well as relational factors. The results call for the enhancement of active parenting of nonresident parents in a context of cooperative and supportive parental relationship, as well as for adequate employment support to poor nonresident parents. Findings of the study support the recent law reform on creating a less adversarial divorce system that is more conducive to a culture of settlement and cooperation, and on a shifted emphasis from parental rights to both rights and responsibilities of divorced parents.

Overnight Stays and Children's Relationships With Resident and Nonresident Parents After Divorce

This study focuses on adolescents' overnight contact with their nonresident parents. Sixty young people ages 12 to 19 and their resident parents were interviewed as part of a nationally representative study in Australia. The likelihood of overnight stays was lower when there was conflict and lack of trust between the parents. Adolescents who stayed overnight with their nonresident parents reported greater closeness and better quality relationships with their nonresident parents than did those who had daytime-only contact, an association that remained significant after taking account of the overall frequency of contact and the level of conflict between the parents (as reported by the resident parent and the child). The findings suggest that overnight stays may both reflect and change the nature of the relationship between children and their nonresident parents, with no apparent downside in this regard for the relationship between children and their resident parents.

Unraveling the Meaning of Family

The definition of “family” has taken on multiple meanings in the larger social context in recent years. This qualitative study of 36 divorced nonresidential parents explores how their definition and meaning of family is affected post-divorce. Systems-level influences and past and present individual experiences appear to shape nonresidential parents' definition of family. A dialectical tension over the definition of family and boundaries surrounding family is created for nonresidential parents leaving some to question traditional definitions as they are faced with the reality of their current family configuration.

An Examination of Everyday Talk in Stepfamily Systems

This study explored frequencies of everyday talk in stepfamilies and the extent to which such frequencies of talk differed according to family relationship type. Participants included a parent, stepparent, and stepchild from 114 stepfamilies. Across relationship types, stepfamily members reported catching up, joking around, and recapping the day's events most frequently and interrogating family members least frequently. Significant differences in frequencies of everyday talk across different relational dyads emerged for all three members of the stepfamily system. However, relatively few differences emerged in stepchildren's reported frequencies of everyday talk with their stepparents and their nonresidential parents.

Patterns of Post-Divorce Parental Alliance and Children's Self-Esteem in Hong Kong

With the traditional practice of excluding the nonresident parent from post-divorce families in Chinese societies, the importance of post-divorce parental alliance has largely been ignored. Patterns of post-divorce parental alliance in Hong Kong have been explored in this study, re-conceptualizing post-divorce families as binuclear families. Based on the data of 62 resident parents and their children, a typology with six patterns was proposed. The six patterns include (1) harmonious co-parenting, (2) harmonious parallel parenting, (3) supportive parallel parenting with some conflicts, (4) disengaged parallel parenting, (5) enmeshed co-parenting, and (6) antagonistic conflicting parenting. In addition to the consistent findings with the West on the harmful effects of conflicting parental relationship on children's well-being, harmonious parental alliance was also negatively associated with children's self-esteem in the Hong Kong study. These negative associations were attributed to the strain on the children caused by the inadequate coordination across households and the conflict between children's perceived filial obligations and their need for autonomy.

Observing, Recording and Reporting: An Analysis of Practice Relating to Supervised Child Contact

Arranging contact between a child and non-resident parent after a couple have separated is an area fraught with difficulties. For those parents who look to the courts and related services to help r...

Parenting from a Distance: Factors Connected to the Contact between Children and a Non-resident Parent

Parenting from a Distance: Factors Connected to the Contact between Children and a Non-resident Parent

Supervised, Supported and Indirect Contact Orders: Research Findings

Child contact with non-resident parents has become a key issue in family law and policy. Within the substantial and growing body of research into how legal systems deal with child contact disputes, there is little empirical data on the use courts make of orders for supervised, supported or indirect contact. This article presents empirical research findings focusing on the use of these sorts of contact orders in England and Wales. The research involved an examination of 343 court records, 60 follow-up interviews with parents and ten interviews with judges responsible for making the orders. Use of orders for supervised or supported contact was relatively common as a short-term measure, while orders for indirect contact were made only as a matter of last resort. On the basis of the post-court developments in contact within the families in the sample and the parents' largely negative experiences of the court system, we conclude that future policy developments ought to focus on finding alternatives to court, which would aim to provide assistance rather than adjudication to the families in dispute.

Parents' and Children's Views on Talking to Judges in Parenting Disputes in Australia

Judicial interviews with children in contested parenting proceedings are an uncommon and contentious practice in Australia and many other common law jurisdictions. While there has been some debate about the merits and risks of such a practice among professionals and academic commentators, there is little research on the views of children and parents. In this study, children and parents involved in contested and non-contested family law matters in Australia were asked to comment on this practice. A related paper explores the views of Australian judges on talking with children in chambers, and their experience of doing so (Parkinson, P. and Cashmore, J., 'Judicial Conversations with Children in Parenting Disputes: The Views of Australian Judges'). Children and parents had mixed views but most children said that it should be an option even if they did not want it for themselves. Children who had been the subject of contested proceedings were generally keen to talk to the judge even though most had been interviewed by an independent expert and had a child legal representative. Resident parents were, however, much more likely than non-resident parents to be in favour of children being able to talk with the judge, either alone or together with a counsellor or 'interpreter'. Both parents and children who were in favour of children talking directly to judges gave very similar reasons. They were related to children's right to be heard and acknowledged, the value of direct communication and the likely beneficial effect on the decision.

Gustafson, Diana. L. (Ed.). UNBECOMING MOTHERS: THE SOCIAL PRODUCTION OF MATERNAL ABSENCE

Gustafson, Diana. L. (Ed.). UNBECOMING MOTHERS: THE SOCIAL PRODUCTION OF MATERNAL ABSENCE. The Haworth Clinical Practice Press, 2005. $39.95 (hardcover).Nearly 7 million U.S. children, about a third of all children with a nonresident parent, live apart from a biological mother, and the number of children with a nonresident mother has increased steadily over the last two decades (U.S. Census, 2006). Gustafson has drawn together a diverse collection of qualitative research studies and other writings about nonresident motherhood or absence. This book provides a truly heart wrenching account of nonresident motherhood and various and sometimes tragic circumstances that prevent women from raising their children. The research is effectively framed throughout the book in terms of harsh dichotomies of motherhood: versus bad mothers, becoming versus mothers, mad versus bad mothers, and natural versus unnatural mothers. The profiled in this book are living apart from their children for a variety of reasons. Readers' sympathies will likely be aroused by profiles of hardworking who became unable to support their children financially as a result of widowhood or husband abandonment. Readers may be similarly moved by descriptive accounts of young, unmarried girls who were forced to give up their babies for adoption, sometimes without ever glimpsing their child. Less sympathetic cases include drug abusing whose children were taken away by the state, who chose to leave their children in order to focus on their careers and to self-actualize, and Quaker who left their children to pursue a higher religious calling. Regardless of the reason for the maternal absence, overlaying these stories is the pain associated with the nonresident mother role, pain which is made worse by idealized notions of motherhood that are broadly-held in Western society.In the first chapter, Gustafson defines her concept of unbecoming mothers as the process and the quality of many women's experiences of living apart from their birth children on a long-term or permanent basis (p. 1 ). Unbecoming are socially constructed, and the writers in this book explore some common assumptions about mothering and maternal absence as outlined by Gustafson: (1) parenting and other forms of care work are highly gendered, (2) mothering is not a monolithic category, (3) nonresident are not a recent phenomenon, (4) mothering is conducted within local, national, and global contexts that are subject to political and economic forces, and (5) womanhood and motherhood are necessarily linked. Under these conditions, all are forced to walk a tightrope of acceptable mothering behavior, silently praying that they do not lose their balance and fall on the wrong side of the motherhood divide. Women who find themselves in the appropriate circumstances under which to raise children, i.e., a middle-class, heterosexual male-breadwinner marriage, are the lucky ones. Women who are not so lucky or who reject traditional gender roles risk falling into the equivalent of the motherhood abyss.The content of the book is a somewhat surprising mixture of qualitative studies, including both intensive interviews and content analysis of historical documents, as well as personal reflections, subjective narratives, poetry, and even a description of choreography and dance. Such mix of materials effectively conveys the pain faced by women who do not fit into culturally-constructed conceptions of good motherhood. This book is therefore not a place to go for generalizable facts and figures on nonresident motherhood, legal and policy issues surrounding nonresident motherhood, or the effects of nonresident motherhood on children's well-being. Readers should take note that the book focuses on experiences of mother's in Canada, a nation with a tradition of strong support for social welfare. …

Parents' and Children's Views on Talking to Judges in Parenting Disputes in Australia

Judicial interviews with children in contested parenting proceedings are an uncommon and contentious practice in Australia and many other common law jurisdictions. While there has been some debate about the merits and risks of such a practice among professionals and academic commentators, there is little research on the views of children and parents. In this study, children and parents involved in contested and non-contested family law matters in Australia were asked to comment on this practice. A related paper explores the views of Australian judges on talking with children in chambers, and their experience of doing so (Parkinson, P. and Cashmore, J., 'Judicial Conversations with Children in Parenting Disputes: The Views of Australian Judges'). Children and parents had mixed views but most children said that it should be an option even if they did not want it for themselves. Children who had been the subject of contested proceedings were generally keen to talk to the judge even though most had been interviewed by an independent expert and had a child legal representative. Resident parents were, however, much more likely than non-resident parents to be in favour of children being able to talk with the judge, either alone or together with a counsellor or 'interpreter'. Both parents and children who were in favour of children talking directly to judges gave very similar reasons. They were related to children's right to be heard and acknowledged, the value of direct communication and the likely beneficial effect on the decision.

Family and Work Role-Identities of Divorced Parents

There is a plethora of research on work and family. However, there has been less study of the work-family interface of divorced parents. This study of 240 divorced parents examined how they perceived their parenting and work role-identities and how these role-identities are associated with role balance and well-being. Findings suggest that divorced parents' perception of their parent and worker role-identity is in part influenced by others' view. The salience of parenting for both residential and nonresidential parents is significantly associated with well-being, suggesting the importance of this role-identity for mothers and fathers. Additionally, parents who experience greater role balance have greater well-being.