Nonlinguistic Processing Research Articles

Vigilant Attention During Cognitive and Language Processing in Aphasia.

Persons with aphasia (PWA) experience differences in attention after stroke, potentially impacting cognitive/language performance. This secondary analysis investigated physiologically measured vigilant attention during linguistic and nonlinguistic processing in PWA and control participants. To evaluate performance and attention in a language task, seven PWA read sentences aloud (linguistic task) and were compared to a previous data set of 10 controls and 10 PWA. To evaluate performance and attention in a language-independent task, 11 controls and nine PWA completed the Bivalent Shape Task (nonlinguistic task). Continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) data were collected during each session. A previously validated EEG algorithm classified vigilant-attention state for each experiment trial into high, moderate, distracted, or no attention. Dependent measures were task accuracy and amount of time spent in each attention state (measured by the number of trials). PWA produced significantly more errors than controls on the linguistic task, but groups performed similarly on the nonlinguistic task. During the linguistic task, controls spent significantly more time than PWA in a moderate-attention state, but no statistically significant differences were found between groups for other attention states. For the nonlinguistic task, amount of time controls and PWA spent in each attention state was more evenly distributed. When directly comparing attention patterns between linguistic and nonlinguistic tasks, PWA showed significantly more time in a high-attention state during the linguistic task as compared to the nonlinguistic task; however, controls showed no significant differences between linguistic and nonlinguistic tasks. This study provides new evidence that PWA experience a heightened state of vigilant attention when language processing demands are higher (during a linguistic task) than when language demands are lower (during a nonlinguistic task). Collectively, results of this study suggest that when processing language, PWA may allocate more attentional resources than when completing other kinds of cognitive tasks.

Parallel Interactions Between Linguistic and Contextual Factors in Bilinguals

AbstractThe necessity for introducing interactionist and parallelism approaches in different branches of cognitive science emerged as a reaction to classical sequential stage‐based models. Functional psychological models that emphasized and explained how different components interact, dynamically producing cognitive and perceptual states, influenced multiple disciplines. Chiefly among them were experimental psycholinguistics and the many applied areas that dealt with humans’ ability to process different types of information in different contexts. Understanding how bilinguals represent and process verbal and visual input, how their neural and psychological states facilitate such interactions, and how linguistic and nonlinguistic processing overlap, has now emerged as an important area of multidisciplinary research. In this article, we will review available evidence from different language‐speaking groups of bilinguals in India with a focus on situational context. In the discussion, we will address models of language processing in bilinguals within a cognitive psychological approach with a focus on existent models of inhibitory control. The paper's stated goal will be to show that the parallel architecture framework can serve as a theoretical foundation for examining bilingual language processing and its interface with external factors such as social context.

Grounded Cognition Entails Linguistic Relativity: A Neglected Implication of a Major Semantic Theory.

According to the popular Grounded Cognition Model (GCM), the sensory and motor features of concepts, including word meanings, are stored directly within neural systems for perception and action. More precisely, the core claim is that these concrete conceptual features reuse some of the same modality-specific representations that serve to categorize experiences involving the relevant kinds of objects and events. Research in semantic typology, however, has shown that word meanings vary significantly across the roughly 6500 languages in the world. I argue that this crosslinguistic semantic diversity has significant yet previously unrecognized theoretical consequences for the GCM. In particular, to accommodate the typological data, the GCM must assume that the concrete features of word meanings are not merely stored within sensory/motor brain systems, but are represented there in ways that are, to a nontrivial degree, language-specific. Moreover, it must assume that these conceptual representations are also activated during the nonlinguistic processing of the relevant kinds of objects and events (e.g., during visual perception and action planning); otherwise, they would not really be grounded, which is to say, embedded inside sensory/motor systems. Crucially, however, such activations would constitute what is traditionally called linguistic relativity-that is, the influence of language-specific semantic structures on other forms of cognition. The overarching aim of this paper is to elaborate this argument more fully and explore its repercussions. To that end, I discuss in greater detail the key aspects of the GCM, the evidence for crosslinguistic semantic diversity, pertinent work on linguistic relativity, the central claim that the GCM entails linguistic relativity, some initial supporting results, and some important limitations and future directions.

Cognitive predictors of language abilities in primary school children: A cascaded developmental view.

This study investigated the longitudinal relationship between children's domain-general cognitive constraints underlying phonological and sentence processing development in a big sample of typically developing children. 104 children were tested on non-linguistic processing speed, phonological skills (phonological short term memory, phonological knowledge, phonological working memory), and sentence processing abilities (sentence repetition and receptive grammar) in 1st grade (aged 6 to 6.5) and one year later. A cross-lagged structural equation model showed that non-linguistic processing speed was a concurrent predictor of phonological skills, and that phonology had a powerful effect on the child's sentence processing abilities concurrently and longitudinally, providing clear evidence for the role of domain-general processes in the developmental pathway of language. These findings support a cascaded cognitive view of language development and pose important challenges for evaluation and intervention strategies in childhood.

Profiling Bilingual Children: Using Monolingual Assessment to Inform Diagnosis.

Diagnostic tools developed for monolinguals are frequently used for bilingual linguistic assessment. The absence of evaluation criteria for using monolingual norms for bilinguals contributes to inconsistent diagnostic procedures, impacting research and clinical practice. This study considers the reliance on monolingual tools to assess the heritage language to identify bilingual atypical language development (ALD) even when bilingual norms are available for the societal language. One hundred thirty-one English-Hebrew bilingual children aged 5;6-5;11 (years;months) were assessed using diagnostic tools. Bilingual standards are available for the societal language but not for the heritage language. Fifteen English-Hebrew bilingual children were suspected of ALD. They were individually compared with 116 typically developing bilingual peers. The Core Language Score and seven subtest standardized scores of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool-Second Edition were analyzed in the heritage language, English. Results revealed that a composite score used for differential diagnosis in monolingual children cannot be relied upon for bilingual children. Measurements vary in their diagnostic accuracy, with Concepts and Following Directions (comprehension of instructions), Receptive and Expressive Word Classes (lexicon), and Sentence Repetition (syntax) being the most promising for identifying ALD in bilingual children. Lastly, bilingual children's age of onset of bilingualism must be considered in the analysis of linguistic outcomes. Findings elucidate that monolingual assessments for heritage speakers must consider bilingual models of development to ensure a reliable and informative diagnosis. Interacting factors, such as reliance on language-specific knowledge and the recruitment of other nonlinguistic processing skills, may influence a measurement's sensitivity. The findings are pertinent to the practice of speech-language pathologists, informing evidence-based assessment procedures for bilingual children. A group study to determine whether the suggested bilingual standards can identify ALD with acceptable specificity and sensitivity is now recommended.

Neural plasticity for music processing in young adults: The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has increasingly been proposed and utilized as a unique approach to enhance various communicative, cognitive, and emotional functions. However, it is not clear whether, how, and to what extent, tDCS influences nonlinguistic processing such as music processing. The purpose of this study was to examine cortical responses to music as a result of noninvasive brain stimulation. We used a passive listening multiple oddball paradigm consisting of sixtypes of music pattern changes (rhythm, intensity, slide, location, pitch, and timbre) and recorded the event-related potentials (ERP) using 65-electrode sensor nets. Healthy young adults were tested before and after transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). We hypothesized that short-duration one-session tDCS would enhance some aspect of music processing. Our results indicated that the differences between pre- and post-tDCS ERPs were only evident in some conditions. Noninvasive brain stimulation, including tDCS, has the potential to be used as a clinical tool for enhancing auditory processing, but further studies need to examine how experimental parameters (dosage, duration, frequency, etc) influence the neural responses for auditory processing.

Revisiting the talker recognition advantage in bilingual infants

Recent work has shown that exposure to multiple languages affects nonlinguistic processing of speech during infancy. Specifically, Fecher and Johnson found that bilingual 9-month-olds outperformed their monolingual peers in a face–voice matching task in an unfamiliar language [Developmental Science (2019a), 22(4), e12778]. What factors were driving this effect? That is, was this finding truly reflective of a bilingual advantage specific to talker processing, or did the study demonstrate a general cognitive advantage in bilingual infants? Here, we revisited this question by testing bilingual and monolingual 9-month-olds (N = 48) on their ability to associate previously unknown voices with animated cartoon characters. In comparison with earlier work, where infants were presented with characters speaking an unfamiliar language (Spanish), the characters in this study spoke a language familiar to both groups of infants (English). Critically, we found that the monolingual and bilingual infants learned the face–voice pairings equally well when they were tested on the familiar language. We conclude that whereas bilingual infants are skilled at recognizing talkers regardless of the language spoken by the talkers, monolingual infants succeed at talker recognition in a familiar language only. These results begin to clarify the underlying nature of the talker recognition benefit previously reported for bilingual infants.

Right Broca’s area is hyperactive in right-handed subjects during meditation: Possible clinical implications?

Broca’s area, conventionally located in left (categorical) hemisphere of brain, is responsible for integrating linguistic and non-linguistic processing however, functionality of its right homolog remains partly understood and explored. This perception is based on the fact that in 96% of right-handed individuals, who constitute 91% of human population, the left hemisphere is dominant or categorical hemisphere. Here, we introduce novel scientific-based hypothesis that the right homolog of Broca’s region which we observed hyperactive during attention focused meditation, might further play an important role in patients with attention deficits and language and speech disorders. Meditation includes self-regulation practices that focus on attention and awareness to achieve better control on mental processes. The positron emission tomography of brain in twelve (12) apparently healthy male, right-handed long-term meditators showed that the right Broca’s area was significantly hyperactive (p = 0.002) during Meditation vs. Baseline while there was only a subtle increase in the activity of left Broca’s area. Our results suggest that hitherto partly explored and understood right homolog of the Broca’s area (referred to as right Broca’s area) may have some important role, especially during meditation which needs to be explored further.

Linguistic and nonlinguistic processing speed across age-matched normal healthy controls and individuals with left-hemisphere damage, with and without aphasia

ABSTRACT Background Slowed language production and comprehension in people with aphasia (PWA) is frequently cited as a characteristic of the disorder, even after full recovery. However, results supporting the existence of slowness are inconsistent and the mechanisms are unclear. Previous research has failed to determine the neurocognitive locus of the slowing and whether it is due to left hemisphere damage, general aging, or language-specific mechanisms. The goals of this study are: (1) to explore whether reduced processing speed is present and specific to the presence of aphasia or due to left-hemisphere damage more generally and (2) whether it is specific to the linguistic domain of cognition. Results The results of the mixed effects model revealed significant main effects for groups and domains, and no significant interactions among groups or between domains. The two brain-damaged groups exhibited significantly longer processing times across tasks compared to the NHC group. The processing speed of the PWA group was significantly longer than that of the LHD group across simple perceptual and more cognitively complex tasks. Groups were not significantly different on three nonlinguistic sensory-motor tasks. Conclusions Left-hemisphere damage-related slowing, as well as aphasia-additive slowing, was demonstrated as evidenced by significant differences between the two brain-damaged groups and between these two groups and the NHC group. Therefore, the observed slowing in the PWA group appears to be due to both brain-damage-related and aphasia-additive slowing. Domain-specificity was not observed as evidenced by significant slowing on both linguistic and nonlinguistic tasks in both brain-damaged groups compared to the performance of the NHCs.

Implicit Semantic Processing of Linguistic and Non-linguistic Stimuli in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder

While many individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience difficulties with language processing, non-linguistic semantic processing may be intact. We examined neural responses to an implicit semantic priming task by comparing N400 responses—an event-related potential related to semantic processing—in response to semantically related or unrelated pairs of words or pictures. Adults with ASD showed larger N400 responses than typically developing adults for pictures, but no group differences occurred for words. However, we also observed complex modulations of N400 amplitude by age and by level of autistic traits. These results offer important implications for how groups are delineated and compared in autism research.

Cognitive and Behavioral Functioning in Hearing-Impaired Children with and without Language Delay.

Poor language development in patients with sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) may be related to an auditory deficit and/or other neurologic condition that influences the ability to communicate. A retrospective chart review of children (mean age = 4.0 years) with congenital, bilateral SNHL was performed to assess for linguistic and nonlinguistic neurodevelopmental differences between those who were language-impaired (LI) versus non-language-impaired (NLI). Language, neurodevelopmental functioning, and behavior were assessed. Twenty-two patients were identified: 12 were LI and 10 were NLI. Average pure-tone thresholds and nonverbal intelligence were not different between the language groups, but the LI group demonstrated significantly lower median overall adaptive skills, personal living skills, and motor skills. Behavioral dysregulation was significantly higher in the LI versus NLI group (58% vs 10%; P = .031), although the median neurodevelopmental scores did not differ significantly. These findings introduce the possibility that nonlinguistic processing deficit(s) may be confounding the ability to develop language.

Including Nonlinguistic Processing Tasks in the Identification of Developmental Language Disorder.

Purpose Accurate identification of developmental language disorder (DLD) remains challenging, particularly for children who speak different dialects, languages, or more than 1 language. Children with DLD, on average, have shown subtle deficits on nonlinguistic cognitive processing tasks, and performance on such tasks may be minimally influenced by language experience. This study explores whether nonlinguistic cognitive processing tasks can contribute to the identification of DLD in children from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Method Study 1 combined data from 4 U.S.-based investigations to yield a sample of 395 children, ages 6-10 years, who spoke only English or both Spanish and English. Study 2 consisted of an international sample of 55 kindergarten children living in Vietnam. Each study included children with DLD and children with typical development. Participants completed nonlinguistic cognitive tasks of processing speed, auditory working memory, and attentional control. Data analysis compared typically developing to DLD groups by age and language background. Then, we empirically derived cut-points to report diagnostic accuracy (sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative likelihood ratios). Results For all 3 tasks, adequate sensitivity or specificity (but not both in most cases) was achieved in nearly all age groups. Likelihood ratios reached moderately to very informative levels in several instances. Diagnostic results were maintained when monolingual and bilingual samples were combined into a single group. Conclusions Nonlinguistic cognitive processing tasks may contribute to accurate identification of DLD in combination with other measures. Further research is needed to refine tasks, confirm cut-points established here, and extend findings to children from additional language backgrounds.

Cross-Language Pattern Similarity in the Bilateral Fusiform Cortex Is Associated with Reading Proficiency in Second Language

Previous studies have found that native Chinese speakers recruit the bilateral fusiform gyrus to read English words, in the same manner as they read Chinese words (i.e., the assimilation process). In this study, we quantified the neural pattern similarity between native (L1) and second languages (L2) by using representational similarity analysis (RSA), and examined the modulatory effects of L2 proficiency on cross-language neural pattern similarity (PS) in the bilateral fusiform cortex. Results showed that, for Chinese–English bilinguals, higher reading proficiency in L2 was associated with greater cross-language PS in the left fusiform gyrus, but with lower PS in the right fusiform gyrus. These results suggest that, as L2 proficiency increases, the assimilation process is enhanced in the region for word reading (left fusiform gyrus), but reduced in the region for nonlinguistic processing (right fusiform gyrus).

Cognitive control among immersed bilinguals: Considering differences in linguistic and non-linguistic processing

While several studies have shown a bilingual advantage in cognitive control, others have refuted such findings, leading to debates regarding the existence of bilingual benefits. The current study conducts two experiments to investigate this issue, focusing on the effect of the age of second language immersion in young adult non-immigrant bilinguals. We use a colour-word Stroop task to assess linguistic cognitive control, and an Attention Network Test to examine non-linguistic cognitive control. Results show significant differences between Simultaneous and Early Sequential bilinguals (typically grouped together as ‘early’) in the Stroop task, but these only become apparent when both languages are mixed. Simultaneous bilinguals also show improved Executive Control efficiency, particularly in the presence of alerting and orienting cues, suggesting enhanced attentional skills for this group. We discuss these findings with respect to participant grouping and task effects, noting the importance of the language environment.

Linguistic processing and Script-Driven Imagery for trauma exposure: A proof of concept pilot trial

While several empirically supported treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been developed, these treatments are neither widely available nor universally efficacious. This pilot, proof of concept study evaluated a computerized imaginal exposure Script-Driven Imagery Training (SDI-T) for individuals with elevated trauma reactivity. The training was supplemented with two forms of linguistic processing, affect labeling (SDI-T + AL) and distraction (SDI-T + D), to determine whether linguistic inhibitory regulation augmented the effects of SDI-T. MethodsParticipants (n = 64) with trauma-related distress were randomized to SDI-T, SDI-T + AL, or SDI-T + D. Physiology and self-reported trauma distress were measured at pre- and post-training. ResultsThe training was acceptable to participants and effective at reducing self-reported distress (d = −0.41), and physiological activation from pre- to post-training (d = −0.49, ps < .01), with some evidence that linguistic processing (SDI-T + AL and SDIT-T + D) conferred a benefit over SDI-T. The linguistic processing groups had significantly steeper reduction in physiology relative to the non-linguistic processing group (p < .05, d = 0.59). There was no benefit of SDI-T + AL over SDI-T + D. ConclusionsThis pilot study provides initial support for the acceptability and efficacy of computerized imaginal exposure training for PTSD. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Lexical access in semantic variant PPA: Evidence for a post-semantic contribution to naming deficits

The most salient clinical symptom of semantic variant primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a profound and pervasive anomia. These patients’ naming impairments have been shown to reflect in large part a domain-general deterioration of conceptual knowledge that impacts both linguistic and non-linguistic processing. However, it is possible that post-semantic stages of lexical access may also contribute to naming deficits. To clarify the stages at which lexical access breaks down in semantic variant PPA, eleven French-speaking patients were asked to name objects, and were then queried for semantic, lexical-syntactic, and word form information pertaining to the items they could not name. Specifically, our goal was to determine whether patients can access intermediate representations known as lemmas, which mediate the arbitrary mapping between semantic representations and word forms (phonological and orthographic forms). The French language was chosen for this study because nouns in French are marked for grammatical gender, a prototypical type of lexical-syntactic information, represented at the level of the lemma. Access to word form information is also dependent on lemma access under some theoretical views. We found that six of the eleven patients showed partial access to either lexical-syntactic properties of unnamed items (grammatical gender), word form information (initial letter), or both. Access to these types of information suggests that a lemma has been retrieved, implying a breakdown at the post-semantic stage of word form retrieval. Our results suggest that although degraded conceptual knowledge is the main cause of naming deficits in semantic variant PPA, in some patients, a post-semantic component also contributes to the impairment.

The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience.

According to some estimates, more than half of the world's population is multilingual to some extent. Because of the centrality of language use to human experience and the deep connections between linguistic and nonlinguistic processing, it would not be surprising to find that there are interactions between bilingualism and cognitive and brain processes. The present review uses the framework of experience-dependent plasticity to evaluate the evidence for systematic modifications of brain and cognitive systems that can be attributed to bilingualism. The review describes studies investigating the relation between bilingualism and cognition in infants and children, younger and older adults, and patients, using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods. Excluded are studies whose outcomes focus primarily on linguistic abilities because of their more peripheral contribution to the central question regarding experience-dependent changes to cognition. Although most of the research discussed in the review reports some relation between bilingualism and cognitive or brain outcomes, several areas of research, notably behavioral studies with young adults, largely fail to show these effects. These discrepancies are discussed and considered in terms of methodological and conceptual issues. The final section proposes an account based on "executive attention" to explain the range of research findings and to set out an agenda for the next steps in this field. (PsycINFO Database Record

Brain Localization and the Integrated Systems Hypothesis: Evidence from Broca’s Region

The human brain is a fascinatingly complex organ with specialized structures associated with distinct functions. Classical and recent studies on brain localization propose that Broca’s area underpin expressive language and this has been generalized to explain brain functional organization. However, recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the Broca’s area is an extended network that not only participate in its primary function-expressive language processing but in secondary functions-processing non-linguistic/nonverbal tasks as well. Also, there is hierarchical connectivity and interaction of Broca’s region and different brain areas in underlying related primary functions. For this review, I start with revisiting the classical description of brain localization. I then discuss the neuroanatomy of language production and the role of Broca’s region in language processing. I then highlight the participation of the Broca’s area in non-linguistic tasks and non-primary linguistic tasks. Ultimately, I propose a novel hypothesis called integrated systems hypothesis. The integrated systems hypothesis is useful for guiding research on the multimodal role of specific localized integrated systems of the brain especially the role of the Broca’s region in integrating linguistic and non-linguistic processing and how this facilitate language production.

Editorial: The impact of learning to read on visual processing.

Editorial: The impact of learning to read on visual processing.

Processing Speed Measures as Clinical Markers for Children With Language Impairment

This study investigated the relative utility of linguistic and nonlinguistic processing speed tasks as predictors of language impairment (LI) in children across 2 time points. Linguistic and nonlinguistic reaction time data, obtained from 131 children (89 children with typical development [TD] and 42 children with LI; 74 boys and 57 girls) were analyzed in the 3rd and 8th grades. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses and likelihood ratios were used to compare the diagnostic usefulness of each task. A binary logistic regression was used to test whether combined measures enhanced diagnostic accuracy. In 3rd grade, a linguistic task, grammaticality judgment, provided the best discrimination between LI and TD groups. In 8th grade, a combination of linguistic and nonlinguistic tasks, rhyme judgment and simple response time, provided the best discrimination between groups. Processing speed tasks were moderately predictive of LI status at both time points. Better LR+ than LR- values suggested that slow processing speed was more predictive of the presence than the absence of LI. A nonlinguistic processing measure contributed to the prediction of LI only at 8th grade, consistent with the view that nonlinguistic and linguistic processing speeds follow different developmental trajectories.