Nonlinear General Relativity Research Articles

Balance laws as test of gravitational waveforms

Gravitational waveforms play a crucial role in comparing observed signals with theoretical predictions. However, obtaining accurate analytical waveforms directly from general relativity (GR) remains challenging. Existing methods involve a complex blend of post-Newtonian theory, effective-one-body formalism, numerical relativity and interpolation, introducing systematic errors. As gravitational wave astronomy advances with new detectors, these errors gain significance, particularly when testing GR in the nonlinear regime. A recent development proposes a novel approach to address this issue. By deriving precise constraints—or balance laws—directly from full nonlinear GR, this method offers a means to evaluate waveform quality, detect template weaknesses and ensure internal consistency. Before delving into the intricacies of balance laws in full nonlinear GR, we illustrate the concept using a detailed mechanical analogy. We will examine a dissipative mechanical system as an example, demonstrating how mechanical balance laws can gauge the accuracy of approximate solutions in capturing the complete physical scenario. While mechanical balance laws are straightforward, deriving balance laws in electromagnetism and GR demands a rigorous foundation rooted in mathematically precise concepts of radiation. Following the analogy with electromagnetism, we derive balance laws in GR. As a proof of concept, we employ an analytical approximate waveform model, showcasing how these balance laws serve as a litmus test for the model’s validity. This article is part of the theme issue ‘The particle-gravity frontier’.

Cosmological distances with general-relativistic ray tracing: framework and comparison to cosmographic predictions

In this work we present the first results from a new ray-tracing tool to calculate cosmological distances in the context of fully nonlinear general relativity. We use this tool to study the ability of the general cosmographic representation of luminosity distance, as truncated at third order in redshift, to accurately capture anisotropies in the “true” luminosity distance. We use numerical relativity simulations of cosmological large-scale structure formation which are free from common simplifying assumptions in cosmology. We find the general, third-order cosmography is accurate to within 1% for redshifts to z ≈ 0.034 when sampling scales strictly above 100 h -1 Mpc, which is in agreement with an earlier prediction. We find the inclusion of small-scale structure generally spoils the ability of the third-order cosmography to accurately reproduce the full luminosity distance for wide redshift intervals, as might be expected. For a simulation sampling small-scale structures, we find a ∼ ±5% variance in the monopole of the ray-traced luminosity distance at z ≈ 0.02. Further, all 25 observers we study here see a 9–20% variance in the luminosity distance across their sky at z ≈ 0.03, which reduces to 2–5% by z ≈ 0.1. These calculations are based on simulations and ray tracing which adopt fully nonlinear general relativity, and highlight the potential importance of fair sky-sampling in low-redshift isotropic cosmological analysis.

Two boson stars in equilibrium

We construct and explore the solution space of two non-spinning, mini-boson stars in equilibrium, in fully non-linear General Relativity (GR), minimally coupled to a free, massive, complex scalar field. The equilibrium is due to the balance between the (long range) gravitational attraction and the (short-range) scalar mediated repulsion, the latter enabled by a $\pi$ relative phase. Gravity is \textit{mandatory}; it is shown no similar solutions exist in flat spacetime, replacing gravity by non-linear scalar interactions. We study the variation of the proper distance between the stars with their mass (or oscillation frequency), showing it can be qualitatively captured by a simple analytic model that features the two competing interactions. Finally, we discuss some physical properties of the solutions, including their gravitational lensing.

Inferring the gravitational wave memory for binary coalescence events

Full, non-linear general relativity predicts a memory effect for gravitational waves. For compact binary coalescence, the total gravitational memory serves as an inferred observable, conceptually on the same footing as the mass and the spin of the final black hole. Given candidate waveforms for any LIGO event, then, one can calculate the posterior probability distribution functions for the total gravitational memory, and use them to compare and contrast the waveforms. In this paper we present these posterior distributions for the binary black hole merger events reported in the first Gravitational Wave Transient Catalog (GWTC-1), using the Phenomenological and Effective-One-Body waveforms. On the whole, the two sets of posterior distributions agree with each other quite well though we find larger discrepancies for the $\ell=2, m=1$ mode of the memory. This signals a possible source of systematic errors that was not captured by the posterior distributions of other inferred observables. Thus, the posterior distributions of various angular modes of total memory can serve as diagnostic tools to further improve the waveforms. Analyses such as this would be valuable especially for future events as the sensitivity of ground based detectors improves, and for LISA which could measure the total gravitational memory directly.

Compact binary coalescences: constraints on waveforms

Gravitational waveforms for compact binary coalescences (CBCs) have been invaluable for detections by the LIGO-Virgo collaboration. They are obtained by a combination of semi-analytical models and numerical simulations. So far systematic errors arising from these procedures appear to be less than statistical ones. However, the significantly enhanced sensitivity of the new detectors that will become operational in the near future will require waveforms to be much more accurate. This task would be facilitated if one has a variety of cross-checks to \emph{evaluate} accuracy, particularly in the regions of parameter space where numerical simulations are sparse. Currently errors are estimated by comparing the candidate waveforms with the numerical relativity (NR) ones, which are taken to be exact. The goal of this paper is to propose a qualitatively different tool. We show that full non-linear general relativity (GR) imposes an infinite number of sharp constraints on the CBC waveforms. These can provide clear-cut measures to evaluate the accuracy of candidate waveforms against exact GR, help find systematic errors, and also provide external checks on NR simulations themselves.

Asymptotic behavior of massless fields and the memory effect

We investigate the behavior of massless scalar, electromagnetic, and linearized gravitational perturbations near null infinity in d \geq 4 dimensional Minkowski spacetime (of both even and odd dimension) under the assumption that these fields admit a suitable expansion in 1/r. We also investigate the behavior of asymptotically flat, nonlinear gravitational perturbations near null infinity in all dimensions d\geq 4. We then consider the memory effect in fully nonlinear general relativity. We show that in even dimensions, the memory effect first arises at Coulombic order--i.e., order 1/r^{d-3}--and can naturally be decomposed into `null memory' and `ordinary memory.' Null memory is associated with an energy flux to null infinity. We show that ordinary memory is associated with the metric failing to be stationary at one order faster fall-off than Coulombic in the past and/or future. In odd dimensions, we show that the total memory effect at Coulombic order and slower fall-off always vanishes. Null memory is always of `scalar type', but the ordinary memory can be of any (i.e., scalar, vector, or tensor) type. In 4-spacetime dimensions, we give an explicit example in linearized gravity which gives rise to a nontrivial vector (i.e., magnetic parity) ordinary memory effect at order 1/r. We show that scalar memory is described by a diffeomorphism; vector and tensor memory cannot be. In d=4 dimensions, we show that there is a close relationship between memory and the charge and flux expressions associated with supertranslations. We analyze the behavior of solutions that are stationary at Coulombic order and show how these suggest `antipodal matching' between future and past null infinity, which gives rise to conservation laws. The relationship between memory and infrared divergences of the `out' state in quantum gravity is analyzed, and the nature of the `soft theorems' is explained.

Gravitational Waves from Isolated Systems: Surprising Consequences of a Positive Cosmological Constant.

There is a deep tension between the well-developed theory of gravitational waves from isolated systems and the presence of a positive cosmological constant Λ, however tiny. In particular a generalization of Einstein's 1918 quadrupole formula that would allow a positive Λ is not yet available. We first explain the principal difficulties and then show that it is possible to overcome them in the weak field limit. These results also provide concrete hints for constructing the Λ>0 generalization of the Bondi-Sachs framework for full, nonlinear general relativity.

Asymptotics with a positive cosmological constant. II. Linear fields on de Sitter spacetime

Linearized gravitational waves in de Sitter space-time are analyzed in detail to obtain guidance for constructing the theory of gravitational radiation in presence of a positive cosmological constant in full, nonlinear general relativity. Specifically: i) In the exact theory, the intrinsic geometry of $\scri$ is often assumed to be conformally flat in order to reduce the asymptotic symmetry group from $\Diff$ to the de Sitter group. Our {results show explicitly} that this condition is physically unreasonable; ii) We obtain expressions of energy-momentum and angular momentum fluxes carried by gravitational waves in terms of fields defined at $\scrip$; iii) We argue that, although energy of linearized gravitational waves can be arbitrarily negative in general, gravitational waves emitted by physically reasonable sources carry positive energy; and, finally iv) We demonstrate that the flux formulas reduce to the familiar ones in Minkowski space-time in spite of the fact that the limit $\Lambda \to 0$ is discontinuous (since, in particular, $\scri$ changes its space-like character to null in the limit).

Asymptotics with a positive cosmological constant: I. Basic framework

The asymptotic structure of the gravitational field of isolated systems has been analyzed in great detail in the case when the cosmological constant Λ is zero. The resulting framework lies at the foundation of research in diverse areas in gravitational science. Examples include: (i) positive energy theorems in geometric analysis; (ii) the coordinate invariant characterization of gravitational waves in full, nonlinear general relativity; (iii) computations of the energy–momentum emission in gravitational collapse and binary mergers in numerical relativity and relativistic astrophysics; and (iv) constructions of asymptotic Hilbert spaces to calculate S-matrices and analyze the issue of information loss in the quantum evaporation of black holes. However, by now observations have led to a strong consensus that Λ is positive in our universe. In this paper we show that, unfortunately, the standard framework does not extend from the case to the case in a physically useful manner. In particular, we do not have positive energy theorems, nor an invariant notion of gravitational waves in the nonlinear regime, nor asymptotic Hilbert spaces in dynamical situations of semi-classical gravity. A suitable framework to address these conceptual issues of direct physical importance is developed in subsequent papers.

Nonlinear radial oscillations of neutron stars

The effects of nonlinear oscillations in compact stars are attracting considerable current interest. In order to study such phenomena in the framework of fully nonlinear general relativity, highly accurate numerical studies are required. A numerical scheme specifically tailored for such a study is based on formulating the time evolution in terms of deviations from a stationary equilibrium configuration. Using this technique, we investigate over a wide range of amplitudes nonlinear effects in the evolution of radial oscillations of neutron stars. In particular, we discuss mode coupling due to nonlinear interaction, the occurrence of resonance phenomena, shock formation near the stellar surface as well as the capacity of nonlinearities to stabilize perturbatively unstable neutron star models.

Accretion of phantom scalar field into a black hole

Using numerical methods we present the first full nonlinear study of phantom scalar field accreted into a black hole. We study different initial configurations and find that the accretion of the field into the black hole can reduce its area down to 50 percent within time scales of the order of few masses of the initial horizon. The analysis includes the cases where the total energy of the space-time is positive or negative. The confirmation of this effect in full nonlinear general relativity implies that the accretion of exotic matter could be considered an evaporation process. We speculate that if this sort of exotic matter has some cosmological significance, this black hole area reduction process might have played a crucial role in black hole formation and population.

Robert Harry Kraichnan

Robert Harry Kraichnan

Black hole dynamics in general relativity

Basic features of dynamical black holes in full, non-linear general relativity are summarized in a pedagogical fashion. Qualitative properties of the evolution of various horizons follow directly from the celebrated Raychaudhuri equation.

BLACK HOLE BREMSSTRAHLUNG: CAN IT BE AN EFFICIENT SOURCE OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES?

We propose a new source of gravitational waves in the context of full nonlinear General Relativity: the black hole bremsstrahlung. A black hole initially in uniform motion is decelerated along its direction of motion; as a consequence of the deceleration, a radiative transfer process is set up through which the black hole loses its kinetic energy along with part of its rest mass by the emission of gravitational waves. Depending on the initial velocity and the strength of the deceleration, this process can correspond to a high power output in the initial pulse of gravitational radiation emitted.

Dynamical horizons and their properties

A detailed description of how black holes grow in full, non-linear general relativity is presented. The starting point is the notion of dynamical horizons. Expressions of fluxes of energy and angular momentum carried by gravitational waves across these horizons are obtained. Fluxes are local and the energy flux is positive. Change in the horizon area is related to these fluxes. A notion of angular momentum and energy is associated with cross-sections of the horizon and balance equations, analogous to those obtained by Bondi and Sachs at null infinity, are derived. These in turn lead to generalizations of the first and second laws of black hole mechanics. The relation between dynamical horizons and their asymptotic states --the isolated horizons-- is discussed briefly. The framework has potential applications to numerical, mathematical, astrophysical and quantum general relativity.

Dynamical horizons: energy, angular momentum, fluxes, and balance laws.

Dynamical horizons are considered in full, nonlinear general relativity. Expressions of fluxes of energy and angular momentum carried by gravitational waves across these horizons are obtained. Fluxes are local, the energy flux is positive, and change in the horizon area is related to these fluxes. The flux formulas also give rise to balance laws analogous to the ones obtained by Bondi and Sachs at null infinity and provide generalizations of the first and second laws of black-hole mechanics.

Thomas precession in post-Newtonian gravitoelectromagnetism.

The well-known Thomas precession effect is discussed in the context of the post-Newtonian approximation to general relativity using the language of gravitoelectromagnetism (3-plus-1 splitting of gravitational theory). Preliminary discussion anchors the post-Newtonian coordinate system and choice of gravitational variables in the mathematical structure of fully nonlinear general relativity, linking the post-Newtonian gravitoelectric and gravitomagnetic fields to kinematical properties of the associated observer congruence. The transformation laws for these fields under a change of post-Newtonian coordinate system are derived first within the post-Newtonian theory and then by taking the limit of their fully nonlinear form to reveal the interpretation of the various terms in the post-Newtonian case. These transformation laws are then used to make a case for the existence of a gravitational analogue of the ordinary Thomas precession of the spin of a gyroscope.

Multipole expansions of gravitational radiation

This paper brings together, into a single unified notation, the multipole formalisms for gravitational radiation which various people have constructed. It also extends the results of previous workers. More specifically: Part One of this paper reviews the various scalar, vector, and tensor spherical harmonics used in the general relativity literature—including the Regge-Wheeler harmonics, the symmetric, trace-free (STF) tensors of Sachs and Pirani, the Newman-Penrose spin-weighted harmonics, and the Mathews-Zerilli Clebsch-Gordan-coupled harmonics—which include pure-orbital harmonics and pure-spin harmonics. The relationships between the various harmonics are presented. Part One then turns attention to gravitational radiation. The concept of is introduced to facilitate a clean separation of wave generation from wave propagation. The generic radiation field in the local zone is decomposed into multipole components. The energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum in the waves are expressed as infinite sums of multipole contributions. Attention is then restricted to sources that admit a nonsingular, spacetime-covering de Donder coordinate system. (This excludes black holes.) In such a coordinate system the multipole moments of the radiation field are expressed as volume integrals over the source. For slow-motion systems, these source integrals are re-expressed as infinite power series in L / λ≡(size of source ) / (reduced wavelength of waves ). The slow-motion source integrals are then specialized to systems with weak internal gravity to yield (i) the standard Newtonian formulas for the multipole moments, (ii) the post-Newtonian formulas of Epstein and Wagoner, and (iii) post-post-Newtonian formulas. Part Two of this paper derives a multipole-moment wave-generation formalism for slow-motion systems with arbitrarily strong internal gravity, including systems that cannot be covered by de Donder coordinates. In this formalism one calculates, by any means, the source's instantaneous, near-zone, external gravitational field as a solution of the time-independent Einstein field equations. One then reads off of this near-zone field the source's instantaneous multipole moments; and one plugs those time-evolving moments into the standard radiation formulae given in Part One of this paper. As building blocks for this formalism, Part Two also does the following things: (1) In the linearized theory of gravity, for the vacuum exterior of an isolated system, it derives the general solution of the field equations (a result due to Sachs, Bergmann, and Pirani). (2) In full nonlinear general relativity, for the vacuum near-zone exterior of an isolated system, it derives the structure of the general solution of the Einstein field equations. That structure is expressed as a sum of products of multipole contributions. It also matches this near-zone field onto an outgoing-wave radiation field. (3) In full nonlinear general relativity, for the vacuum exterior of a stationary isolated system, (a) it presents a definition of multipole moments which meshes naturally with gravitational-wave theory; (b) it introduces the concept of asymptotically Cartesian and mass centered (ACMC) coordinate systems; and (c) it shows how to deduce the multipole moments of a source from the form of its metric in an ACMC coordinate system. As an example, the lowest few (l ≤ 3) multipole moments of the Kerr metric are computed.