Non-edible Oil Research Articles

Biodiesel production from non-edible feedstock from a novel ternary mixture of Argemone Mexicana, Azadirachta Indica and Bakayan seeds oil

ABSTRACT As the world transitions away from fossil fuels, there is a growing need to balance energy security with energy demand. Several energy sources are being investigated and tested, primarily for driving automobiles. Biodiesel, a common vegetable oil derivative, is growing in popularity in several countries due to its substantial similarity to conventional diesel. Biodiesel can be promissorily used as a replacement liquid fuel for petrol-based diesel for compression ignition engines. At present, biodiesel production primarily relies on edible vegetable oils as its main source. This research explores the potential of a non-edible blend of Argemone Mexicana, Azadirachta Indica, and Melia Azedarach Linn seeds for biodiesel production. In the study, the raw oil was extracted from a novel ternary mixture of three non-edible oil seeds together. The raw oil was further processed for methyl ester production in two step process as the FFA was achieved more than 6%. Moreover, the biodiesel yield percentage was optimized by adjusting the parameters; catalyst concentration, molar ratio and heating time. The findings show that a 6:1 molar ratio, 60 min heating time and 0.6% by weight catalyst concentration yielded the highest percentage of biodiesel at 93%. The physio-chemical characteristics of the produced biodiesel were evaluated, and the outcomes satisfied the ASTM standards. The novel ternary mixture biodiesel exhibited equivalent chemical properties such as calorific value, viscosity and density as 39 MJ/kg, 7.2 mm2/s and 0.860 g/cm3 respectively. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of using non-edible oil from the seeds together for biodiesel production and the potential of this novel ternary mixture as an alternative to conventional diesel fuel.

Performance and Emission Characteristics for Karanja Biodiesel Blends Assisted With Green Hydrogen Fuel and Nanoparticles

Abstract Extensive efforts are being made to produce and use a variety of alternative energies in order to meet the rising global energy demand. The main purpose of this research was to evaluate the mass fuel burnt, emissions, and performance properties of biodiesel made from non-edible karanja oil along with hydrogen and nanoparticles in a standard diesel engine. Upon experimental evaluation, it was determined that the transesterified karanja oil retained all of its vital physicochemical properties within the specified tolerances. The emission and performance characteristics of karanja biodiesel blended with nanoparticles and hydrogen fuel were assessed at different engine loads ranging from 0% to 100%. The uniform amount of nanoparticles and hydrogen was incorporated into test fuels. Al2O3 nanoparticles of 50 ppm were used in this study and hydrogen of 5 L/min was supplied to the engine. K20NH test fuel had the maximum brake thermal efficiency and less brake-specific fuel consumption compared to the other fuel blend. The emissions were considerably reduced on karanja oil, nanoparticles, and hydrogen-blended biodiesel except for nitrogen emission compared with conventional diesel fuel. In this study, the utilization of karanja, nanoparticles, and hydrogen-blended biodiesel showed a promising alternative to fossil fuels due to reduced emission and enhanced performance characteristics.

Effective utilization of biodiesel blends with nano additives on diesel engine towards eco-sustainability

The sustainable fuel known as biodiesel can be produced from either vegetable oils, animal fats, or even recycled cooking oils. It has the potential to cut greenhouse gas emissions and lessen our dependence on oil when compared to traditional diesel derived from petroleum. Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, which are a key contributor to climate change as well as other pollution. In India’s agriculture industry, making biodiesel from plant sources, especially oils that can’t be eaten, has gained a lot of popularity in recent years. In addition, there are not enough of these biodiesels on the market to match the surging demand for fossil fuel. A new biodiesel composition that can be used in diesel engines is made from non-edible oils. The development of a new combination of biodiesel is crucial in order to keep up with the surging demand for fossil fuels. The purpose of this study is to create a novel biodiesel blend of 50 % cottonseed biodiesel and 50 % rapeseed biodiesel and diesel with cerium oxide. The results of CR20N50 show a 15–18 % reduction in fuel consumption, a 12–22 % reduction in carbon monoxide emissions, and a 13–20 % reduction in hydrocarbon emissions compared with base diesel.

Optimisation of the reaction conditions for biodiesel from Parkia biglobosa oil via transesterification with heterogeneous clay base catalyst

Transesterification reaction of Parkia biglobosa oil (0.61% w/w free fatty acid and 191.65 (mgKOH/g) saponification value) with methanol to biodiesel using heterogeneous bi-functional Clay-Na2CO3 catalyst was carried out. The bi-functional heterogeneous clay base catalyst was prepared using incipient impregnation method. Following grinding and sieving, the raw clay mineral was soaked in 9 ml Na2CO3 overnight. It was subsequently dried at 120 °C for 12 h and finally calcined at 450 °C for 4 h. The properties of the prepared catalyst was then studied using FTIR, SEM, UV Spectrum, EDS and XRD. The optimum conditions for the transesterification reaction include 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil, 2 wt% concentrations of catalyst, reaction temperature of 60 °C and 1.5 h of reaction. The maximum yield obtained under conditions was 94.7%. With the exception of the oxidative stability wahich was higher than the recommended standard by American and European Union, all the other properties of the biodiesel were within the limits of American Standard (ASTM D6751), European Standard (EN 14,241) and Ghana Standard Authority. The catalyst could be cheap with superior activity for which reason it could be a potential candidate for producing biodiesel from new non-edible Parkia biglobosa oil. The application of the biodiesel produced from Parkia biglobosa will help improve the lubrication properties of diesel fuel blend which will subsequently help reduce engine wear in diesel engines since biodiesel is a good lubricant.

Property enhancement on neem biodiesel by varying the temperature of transesterification process

The world's energy demands, with the exception of hydroelectric and nuclear power, are met mostly by coal, natural gases and petrochemicals. At the present pace of use, all of these finite resources will be gone in no time. Using petroleum and other nonrenewable energy sources comes with a number of downsides, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions, high processing costs and energy demands, and so on. This has prompted the search for viable alternatives to petroleum-based energy. Alternate fuels for internal combustion engine are the wide range of research area. Among that field fuels from the nonedible vegetable oils got more preference. In this study focused on the improvement of the bio fuel properties by means of varying the parameter of the processing. Biodiesel can be derived from the need seed vegetable oil by transesterification process. The temperature maintained for this process was taken as influencing parameter for the properties enhancement. This temperature varied from 45 ℃ – 65 ℃ with increment of 5 ℃ in separate process. The corresponding fuel properties were measured and compared to identify the suitable temperature for the greatest fuel properties.

Catalytic transesterification of kapok seed oil by dual metal oxide (Na2O-K2O; MgO-CaO) impregnated active-natural mordenite under ultrasonic irradiation

ABSTRACT Various solid base catalysts have been used for biodiesel production from different edible and non-edible vegetable oils. Hitherto, reports pertaining to dual-basic metal oxides onto an acidic support is very limited. Herein, we have conducted a novel study using Na2O-K2O and MgO-CaO impregnated into Active Natural Mordenite (ANM) as Na2O-K2O/ANM and MgO-CaO/ANM for kapok seed oil transesterification. The physicochemical properties of the as-synthesized catalysts were analyzed using XRD, XRF-He, SEM, AAS, acidity, and surface area. The results showed that the activation of natural mordenite could reduce impurities, increase acidic strength, and the surface area. A series of ratio on Na2O:K2O and MgO:CaO was fine-tuned to give the highest biodiesel production. The catalyst, Na2O-K2O/ANM, with a concentration of 50% and ratio of 1:1 showed the lowest acidity, 0.352 mmol/g, and gave the highest yield of 72.29%. The highest yield, 84.54%, was obtained from MgO-CaO/ANM (40%; 2:1), with the lowest acidity of 0.331 mmol/g. Biodiesel properties, from the transesterification of the kapok seed oil, were characterized by SNI 7182:2015 standards. The characteristics of synthesized biodiesel met the used standard, and in terms of reaction activity, it is found that the alkalinity level of the catalyst is more influential than its surface area.

Biodiesel synthesis from mixed non-edible oil feedstock using K2CO3 in NH4OH Catalyst mixture

ABSTRACT In the present study, a new approach has tried to synthesize and optimize biodiesel production from mixed oils (Pongamia and Mahua) using an in-situ generated KOH from K2CO3 in an NH4OH catalyst mixture using response surface methodology (RSM). A maximum biodiesel yield of 96.5 v/v% was obtained at a catalyst concentration (CC) of 1.5 g K2CO3 in 0.75 g of NH4OH, oil to methanol molar ratio (M:O) of 7:1 at a reaction temperature (RT) of 55°C in 75 min reaction time (Rt). The obtained biodiesel yield is compared and found to be maximum (96.5 v/v%) for K2CO3 in NH4OH catalyst mixture than K2CO3 in H2O, direct K2CO3 and Conventional KOH methods. Furthermore, the presence of carbonate and ammonium ions in the reaction medium resulted in an increased biodiesel yield due to the less possibility for free water molecules formation and with a minimal amount of KOH to drive the reaction toward the right-hand side. The GC-MS, 1HNMR and FTIR techniques were used to confirm the conversion of esters.

Lubricant mechanisms of eco-friendly lubricant blended with mineral oil for steel-steel contact

This study intends to explore the lubrication mechanism of eco-friendly lubricant formulated from non-edible vegetable oils and mineral oil. The efficacy of the lubricant as friction and wear-reduction additive is determined to have a mixed lubrication regime with the optimum concentration of 80 % S100, 10 % C100, and 10 % J100 (S80C10J10). A protective film and mending effect have been suggested as lubricating mechanisms. The lubrication regime is changed from mixed to hydrodynamic by increasing the volume percent of C100 and J100, which improves the COF because fluid drags cause friction to be produced by the fluid on the moving surface. The inability of the additive to form a protective layer led to the worst COF and WSD.

Oleic acid‐rich waste fleshing oil as a secondary carbon source for the synthesis of sophorolipids

AbstractBiosurfactants are nontoxic, renewable, and environmentally benign; and have excellent emulsification and antibacterial properties. Oleic acid‐rich oils have a crucial role as a hydrophobic substrate in the biological production of sophorolipids (SL). The major purpose of this study is to identify a low‐cost oleic acid‐rich hydrophobic substrate that may be used as a secondary carbon source in the synthesis of SL by Starmerella bombicola (S. bombicola). Thus, the biosynthesis of SL was investigated utilizing a variety of edible and nonedible oils rich in oleic acid, which acts as a precursor. Characterization of SL generated from different oils using FT‐IR and NMR indicated the presence of both lactonic and acidic SL. SL production was greatest with secondary carbon sources, with 38.9, 27.57, and 19 g/L, respectively, in the order olive oil > sunflower oil > fleshing oil. Surprisingly, the cost analysis for fleshing oil synthesis indicated that it was the lowest at 0.43 INR/g, followed by sunflower oil at 0.52 INR/g and olive oil at 1.71 INR/g. Our findings indicate that fleshing oil is a potential secondary carbon source with significant SL yield as well as environmental and economic benefits.

Prediction of significant oil properties using image processing based on RGB pixel intensity

Renewable oils from different feedstocks are considered a potential replacement for the current petroleum products, and they are widely used in various applications like alternative fuels to heat engines and bio-coolants for metal removal operations, and their analysis of significant physicochemical properties is significant before their application. This study attempts to analyze the significant oil properties of different edible and non-edible oils using an image processing technique. For this purpose, 11 different oils are considered for experimentation, and their surface images of all the oils are captured and utilized to extract significant pixel information of Red, Green and Blue (RGB). The RGB pixel information is correlated with experimental properties (viscosity, density, flash point, fire point, cloud and pour points) and the developed model is validated with KNN, SVM and Fiji techniques and observed a high prediction accuracy (99%, 90.9% and 99%). Finally, two different oils which are not used in the experiment are chosen to test the prediction accuracy of the developed model. The results show that the RGB pixel predicts the significant oil properties, and they are validated experimentally and observed that the developed model predicts the oil properties with 91.7% accuracy.

Ex-situ biodiesel production from Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba) biomass: Process evaluation and optimization

Biodiesel production is explored in the current study through the ex-situ extraction and trans-esterification approach from commercially available Jojoba seed. This biomass is regarded as a beneficial feedstock for biodiesel production as it contains non-edible oil. Also, this feedstock can be cultivated and grown in wastewater and in variable climate conditions. According to the characteristic analysis Jojoba oil is composed of 6.9% saturated fatty acids (4.6% C16:0, 1.3% C18:0 and 0.2% C20:0), 68.7% monounsaturated fatty acids (48% C20:1, 20.2% C18:1 and 0.5% C16:1) and 24.4% polyunsaturated fatty acids (14.8% C18:2, 9.2% C20:2 and 0.4% C18:3). The acid value of crude Jojoba oil is 0.05 mg KOH/ g sample, which feasible the alkaline catalyzed trans-esterification. The effect of variables on oil extraction was explored preliminary through the time-efficient and low-cost central composite design response surface methodology (CCD-RSM). According to the results, 67.51 wt.% saponifiable oil can be extracted from Jojoba seed at 64.5 °C, reaction duration of 187.7 min, rotation rate of 393.2 rpm, and solvent to biomass ratio of 14.6 cc:1 g. The maximum yield of biodiesel production is also obtained at 50 °C, methanol to oil molar ratio (MeOH: Oil) of 5.5:1, reaction time of 2.25 h, and 0.475 wt.% (KOH weight/ oil weight) KOH loading.

Potential non-edible oil seeds for biodiesel production: An Indian context

Both energy demand and energy security are major concerns for all the economies worldwide due to the rising rate of energy consumption and rise in energy consumption per capita. In addition, the use of biofuels in place of conventional petroleum-based fuels has received more attention as a result of the global commitment to environmentally friendly and sustainable energy use. Biodiesel has emerged as potential biodegradable and nontoxic fuel, which significantly decreases toxic and other harmful emissions when used as diesel engine fuel. The major advantages of biodiesel include its higher cetane number, higher combustion efficiency, lower emissions of aromatic and sulfurous compounds, and a high flash point. The current paper discusses about different potential feedstocks for biodiesel production, its properties and impact of combustion of biodiesel on the environment. The findings of the number of biodiesel related studies and techniques to enhance the performance of the biodiesel fueled engines are covered in this paper. The prospects of economics of biodiesel used in India as a blend are also highlighted in the paper.

A Review on Biodiesel Production

The current focus on renewable energy as a means of mitigating carbon footprint and emission of greenhouse gases has gathered momentum over the years. Biodiesel is one of the promising alternatives for the replacement of the conventional diesel. Currently about 36 billion liters of biodiesel has been produced globally by different countries using various feedstock such as edible oils, non-edible oils, algae oil, genetically modified microbes and waste sludge oils. Several techniques such as direct blending, microemulsion, thermal cracking and transesterification etc, have been used for production of biodiesel from various feedstock. The measure of the effectiveness of any technique depends on ease of operability and the percentage yield obtained at the end of the production process. Economic feasibility studies and life cycle assessment of biodiesel showed positive outcome indicating that biodiesel production and utilization is viable and sustainable.

Biomass to Biofuels: A sure Sustainable Energy Strategy in Nigeria

The utilization of biomass resources as feedstocks for biofuel production is gaining traction globally leading to increasing quantity of biofuel from 187 thousand barrels of oil equivalent per day in 2000 to 1.75 million barrels of oil equivalent per day in 2021. This increase is attributed to high demand, and favourable policy initaited by various government of the world including tax credit and subsidy in the quest to mitigate climate change. Nigeria government in 2007, gazetted the Nigerian Biofuels Policy aimed at promoting the utilization, importation and production of biofues in Nigeria. It encourages investment in biofuels through tax waiver including importation and exportation, waiver on import and customs duties, and insurance. The biomass resources of Nigeria include agricultural and residues, forest products and residues, and municipal solid wastes amounting to over 200 billion kg/yr with energy potential greater than 61 Mtoe. To realize this energy potential, there is a need for the Nigerian government to implement its biofuel policy completely, and to expand the current approved biomass (cassava, sugarcane, palm oil, jatroph, and cellulosic materials) for biofuel production to include the use of lignocellulosic biomass, non-edible oil other jatropha, and algae. The production and utilization of the biofuel will help to increase energy reserve, improve the quality of automotive fossil-based fuels, develop the agricultural sector, mitigate climate change, reduce importation of fuels and create jobs.

Production, optimization, and characterization of Ethiopian variant Prosopis juliflora based biodiesel

Considering the need for biodiesel production from non-edible oil sources and taking into account the fact that Prosopis Juliflora (JF) is identified as a highly invasive species in Ethiopia, this research focuses on biodiesel production from a possible and promising alternative feedstock. The objective of this study is to analyze Ethiopian variant Juliflora based biodiesel (JFB) production through transesterification, carry out optimization by exploring the effects of various process parameters and characterization of functional groups (with GC-MS,FT-IR and NMR) including rheological behavior, not yet been reported earlier. As per ASTM protocol testing, the methyl ester of Juliflora has been found to have the following main fuel properties: kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) 3.395, cetane number 52.9, acid number (mgkoh/g) 0.28, density (gm/ml) 0.880, calorific value (MJ/kg) 44.4, methyl ester content (%) 99.8, and flashpoint (°C) 128, copper strip corrosion value 1a,%FFA (free fatty acid) 0.14. When compared with those of diesel, the viscosity, density, and flash point of JFB are seen to be higher than those of diesel, although it has a similar calorific value but more importantly higher than most of the other biodiesels. Based on an assessment using response surface methodology, methanol concentration together with catalyst loading, temperature, and reaction time are determined to be the most important influencing process parameters. The best molar ratio for methanolysis was observed to be 6:1 with a catalyst concentration of 0.5 wt% at 55 °C for 60 min for biodiesel yield at 65%. The JFB maximum yield of 130 ml at 70 min and the minimum yield of 40 ml at 10 min demonstrate that as mixing time increases, JFB yield tend to increase up to a certain time limit. The maximum raw oil yield rom crushed seed with hexane solvent was observed to be 480 ml within 3 days from 2.5 kg of crushed seed. The Fourier transform infrared analysis (FT-IR) revealed the presence of all desired functional groups necessary for biodiesel on OH radicals at wave numbers of 3314.40 cm−1, Aliphatic methyl C–H at 2942.48 cm− 1 with a functional group (CH-3-,-CH2-), and methylene C–H at 2832.59 cm−1. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC–MS) study confirmed the higher ester content present in the JFB with a higher unsaturation level of 68.81%. The fatty acid, oleic acid has a lower saturation level of 4.5%, while palmitic acid has a lower threshold level of 2.08%. The Rheometer test showed that shear stress and viscosity reduced with increasing temperature within the range of biodiesel requirements, and the Newtonian behavior was confirmed. The JFB has a fairly high viscosity and shear rate at low temperatures. The 1H NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) study established that JFB has a necessary ingredient; and aliphatic resonances occur in the chemical shift region of 1.5–3.0 ppm. Significant regions indicate protons bound to heteroaromatics, aldehydes, as shown by 13C NMR spectrum. The findings from the FT-IR, GC-MS, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR are in agreement thus validating the presence of numerous functional groups in JFB as such. Since JFB possesses the requisite biodiesel fuel attributes, Prosopis Juliflora need to be pursued as a promising biodiesel feedstock in Ethiopia for alleviating the burden of imported fuels while also addressing difficulties with emissions released by the combustion of fossil fuels.

Application of ultrasound technology in the intensification of biodiesel production from bitter almond oil (BAO) in the presence of biocompatible heterogeneous catalyst synthesized from camel bone

ABSTRACT Although biofuels have many benefits, but their production costs are high. This challenge has caused researches to use waste materials and apply technologies to lower the cost of producing these fuels. In this study, a biocompatible heterogeneous catalyst created from calcining camel bones is employed to make biodiesel fuel from non-edible bitter almond oil (BAO). Additionally, using ultrasound technology was one way to increase the effectiveness of the biodiesel synthesis process. Additionally, the effects of the independent variables alcohol to oil molar ratio (6:1, 11:1, and 16:1), reaction time (10, 20, and 30 minutes), ultrasonic power (30, 65, and 100%), catalyst loading (4, 8, and 12 oil wt%), and reaction time (10, 20, and 30 minutes) on the production of methyl ester from BAO were examined. Camel bones were calcined at 400, 700, and 1000°C for 2, 3, and 4 hours. Optimum temperature and time conditions for camel bones calcination with maximum methyl ester production of 88% were obtained at 1000°C and 3 hours after measuring the morphology structure of camel bones catalyst using XRD and TGA methods. The maximum biodiesel conversion rate of 92.3% was obtained using the calcined catalyst with a molar ratio of 11:1, a catalyst loading of 8%, an ultrasonic power of 100%, and a reaction time of 20 minutes. Using the response surface methodology, tests and optimization were performed by Design-Expert software. Biodiesel yield and energy consumption were 88.13% and 248.18 kJ in the optimal conditions suggested by the software with the conditions of maximum production and minimum energy consumption with appropriate weighting. According to the results, waste camel bone can be used as a cost-effective biocompatible source with favorable catalytic activity for biodiesel fuel production.

Investigation of Pungamia Oil Properties Using Spectroscopy for Transformer Applications

Traditionally, the insulating oil’s characteristics are measured by analyzing various properties such as electrical, chemical, and physical properties. Because these methods are lacking accuracy, the spectroscopy analysis has been incorporated with conventional testing for assessing the critical properties of proposed non-edible Pungamia oil (PP) as a biodegradable insulating oil for transformer. The results are evident that PP oil’s critical characteristics are meeting the standard requirement as an insulating material for the transformer applications. DGA analysis illustrates that the combustible gas emission on mineral oil is higher than that of PP samples. From FTIR and UV–VIS analyses it is observed that the thermal withstanding ability of PP is well comparable to that of mineral oil. SEM analysis revealed that the deterioration rate of cellulose-insulating material immersed in PP is lower than that immersed in mineral oil. XRD analysis proved that crystallite reduction in mineral oil immersed cellulose-insulating material is higher than the ester oil. Abbreviations: CH4: methane; C2H2: acetylene; C2H4: ethylene; C2H6: ethane; CO: carbon monoxide; CO2: carbon dioxide; DGA: dissolved gas analysis; FTIR: Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy; H2: Hydrogen; MO: mineral oil; NEO: natural ester oil; PO: Pungamia oil; SEM: scanning electron microscope; UV: Vis-Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy; XRD: X-ray diffraction analysis

Hydrocarbon biolubricants from hydrotreated renewable and waste derived liquid intermediates

There is a need to support the biofuel sector by utilizing waste materials for its production and utilizing co-products through an integrated approach. Due to bio-oil's diverse composition, its applications for foams and resins syntheses are emerging, but most importantly, as biolubricants, product with increasing global demand. In this study, four hydrocarbon biolubricants (HBL) were produced via a hydrotreatment process. Two samples were produced using hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of algae (HAL) and sewage sludge (HSS). Additional samples included animal fat (poultry fat; HPF) and non-edible oil (carinata; HCA). All four samples were evaluated for their tribological properties and compared with the mineral base oil (MBO). These potential biolubricants samples had viscosity indices (VI) ranging from 197 to 254, pour points (PP) from −10 °C to −20 °C, and Noack volatilities between 16% and 23%. The coefficient of friction (COF) for HAL and HSS was lower than MBO, HPF, and HCA, but the wear was higher than HPF. Large amounts of oxygenates and olefins imparted higher VI and lowered PP to HPF. Even though both HSS and HAL demonstrated higher amounts of paraffin, they exhibited lower thermo-oxidative stability, higher PP, and higher volatility than other samples. In the case of HAL and HSS, the aromatics could have played a more prominent role in determining the lubricating properties than the paraffin alone. The HPF had the lowest wear, highest VI, and lower PP but higher COF. The volatility and COF predominantly dependent on the cyclic structures, unsaturation, and heteroatoms. The results indicated that the hydrotreated bio-oil from HTL biocrude and waste precursors could be considered as eco-friendly hydrocarbon biolubricant blend stock.

Anhydride-cured epoxidized dehydrated castor oil (EDCO) containing organically modified zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles

The incorporation of nanoparticles in various coatings has enhanced coating performances, thus attracting many researchers to explore nanocomposite coatings. In order to synthesize a novel nanocomposite coating, dehydrated castor oil (DCO - biobased non-edible vegetable oil) was epoxidized with performic acid (HCOOOH) and cured with methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride (MTHPA) in presence of tertiary amine accelerator, 1-methyl imidazole (1-MI) and characterized by FTIR and 1H NMR. Simultaneously, zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized by mixing zinc acetate dihydrate (ZnAc2) with oxalic acid dihydrate (Ox2) by precipitation method and then modified organically with (3-glycidyloxypropyl) trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) by sol–gel method which was confirmed by DLS, FTIR, XRD, E-SEM, EDAX, TEM and XPS. These GPTMS-modified ZnO (G-ZnO) nanoparticles were incorporated into EDCO in various concentrations (0–3 wt%) and their mechanical, chemical, thermal and anticorrosion performances were evaluated. All the coatings demonstrated outstanding mechanical and chemical properties (except for alkali resistance) whereas thermal resistance and anticorrosion properties were enhanced with increase in the loading of G-ZnO nanoparticles.

Intensification of biodiesel production by hydrodynamic cavitation: A critical review

Biodiesel, with its nature of clean, biodegradability, and renewability, is an ideal substitute for fossil diesel. This critical review focuses on the advances in process intensification of biodiesel production by the emerging hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) technology. The recent progress in HC reactors and HC-assisted biodiesel production are summarized and discussed. Several key operating factors (i.e., reactor structure, cavitation intensity, temperature, molar ratio of alcohol to oil, catalyst, and duration) and the economic feasibility are analyzed. It is found that HC can effectively enhance acid- and alkali-catalyzed production processes by using various edible and non-edible oils (e.g., waste cooking oil) as feedstocks, and have economic practicability for industrialization. HC can achieve as high as over 99% yields in a short time, and the quality of the high-purity products meets EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards. Although the process simulation and life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) validated that the economics of HC process is far superior to that of conventional mechanical stirring at large scales, the experimental research at pilot or industrial scales is absent, and the amplification effect of both the reactor and process is unclear. Moreover, the investigations on the cavitation flow mechanism, structural optimization and design of HCRs, and feasibility (e.g., life cycle analysis (LCA), LCCA, and LCA-LCCA), have to be focused on in the future. At last, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of the HC process are evaluated by a SWOT matrix, which may hopefully provide some inspiration for the future development of this novel technology.