Non-athletes Research Articles

Avaliação do torque passivo de flexão plantar e torque ativo de flexão dorsal em ginastas rítmicas e não atletas

O treinamento realizado por atletas de elite acarreta demandas funcionais específicas que produzem mudanças nos tendões e nas propriedades musculares. Nas atletas de ginástica rítmica (GR) há uma exigência maior de controle motor em posições extremas de flexão plantar. Esta demanda pode alterar o torque passivo dos flexores plantares bem como influenciar na amplitude de movimento (ADM) de flexão dorsal e torque dos dorsiflexores. No presente estudo foi comparada a ADM de flexão dorsal de GR e meninas não atletas (MNA), e determinada a correlação entre o torque passivo dos flexores plantares (TPFP) e o torque ativo dos flexores dorsais (TAFD). O estudo incluiu 10 GR e 10 MNA. A ADM de flexão dorsal foi medida com um goniômetro. O TPFP e TAFD foram avaliados por meio de um dinamômetro isocinético em cinco ângulos articulares (20º, 10º, 0º, -10º e -20º). O teste T para amostras independentes foi utilizado para a comparação entre os grupos (α = 0,05). O coeficiente de correlação de Pearson indicou uma correlação negativa alta e moderada entre o TPFP e TAFD para as GR e NA, respectivamente. GR apresentaram menor ADM de flexão dorsal comparadas às MNA. O TPFP foi significativamente maior nas GR comparado as MNA. Por outro lado, o TAFD foi maior nas MNA. A correlação do TPFP com o TAFD foi de r = -0,82; p < 0,01 e r = -0,68; p < 0,01 para GR e MNA, respectivamente. Os resultados sugerem que a alta demanda mecânica nos flexores plantares na GR aumenta o TPFP que pode influenciar negativamente na ADM dos flexores dorsais e no TAFD.

Diastolic Stress Echocardiography in the Young: A Study in Nonathletic and Endurance-Trained Healthy Subjects

The response of diastolic Doppler indices to exercise is not well defined for young subjects. The aims of this study were to evaluate this in nonathletic and endurance-trained probands and to correlate echocardiographic data with maximal oxygen consumption. In this prospective study, Doppler echocardiography was performed at rest and after exercise in 40 nonathletes (NAs) and 20 endurance-trained athletes (ETs) aged < 40 years, matched for age and gender. Diastolic function was assessed by mitral inflow and early diastolic velocities of the septal (e' septal) and lateral (e' lateral) mitral annulus. Maximal oxygen consumption quantification was performed simultaneously. All cardiac chambers were larger in ETs than NAs. ETs had higher e' lateral at rest (18.1 ± 2.7 vs 16.3± 3.3 cm/sec, P= .02) and higher mitral E (141 ± 15 vs 132 ± 15 cm/sec, P= .02) and e' lateral (23.5± 2.5 vs 21.4 ± 3.0 cm/sec, P= .01) with exercise than NAs. There was a slight increase in E/e' septal (overall, from 6.8 ± 1.3 to 7.2 ± 1.2; P= .02) and E/e' lateral (overall, from 5.0 ± 0.8 to 6.2 ± 0.9; P < .0001) with exercise. Changes in diastolic parameters with exercise were similar in ETs and NAs. Percentage of predicted maximal oxygen consumption was correlated with exertional E (r= 0.28, P= .03) and e' lateral (r= 0.32, P=.01), but the strongest predictor was indexed left ventricular end-diastolic volume (r= 0.66, P < .0001). During exercise, E/e' increases but remains within normal ranges in healthy young subjects, and the response to exercise does not differ between ETs and NAs. These data help define the normal diastolic stress echocardiographic response in the young. Exercise capacity shows a correlation with enhanced exertional early diastolic velocities but is more closely related to cardiac structural adaption to endurance training.

Irisin levels are lower in young amenorrheic athletes compared with eumenorrheic athletes and non-athletes and are associated with bone density and strength estimates.

Irisin and FGF21 are novel hormones implicated in the “browning” of white fat, thermogenesis, and energy homeostasis. However, there are no data regarding these hormones in amenorrheic athletes (AA) (a chronic energy deficit state) compared with eumenorrheic athletes (EA) and non-athletes. We hypothesized that irisin and FGF21 would be low in AA, an adaptive response to low energy stores. Furthermore, because (i) brown fat has positive effects on bone, and (ii) irisin and FGF21 may directly impact bone, we hypothesized that bone density, structure and strength would be positively associated with these hormones in athletes and non-athletes. To test our hypotheses, we studied 85 females, 14–21 years [38 AA, 24 EA and 23 non-athletes (NA)]. Fasting serum irisin and FGF21 were measured. Body composition and bone density were assessed using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, bone microarchitecture using high resolution peripheral quantitative CT, strength estimates using finite element analysis, resting energy expenditure (REE) using indirect calorimetry and time spent exercising/week by history. Subjects did not differ for pubertal stage. Fat mass was lowest in AA. AA had lower irisin and FGF21 than EA and NA, even after controlling for fat and lean mass. Across subjects, irisin was positively associated with REE and bone density Z-scores, volumetric bone mineral density (total and trabecular), stiffness and failure load. FGF21 was negatively associated with hours/week of exercise and cortical porosity, and positively with fat mass and cortical volumetric bone density. Associations of irisin (but not FGF21) with bone parameters persisted after controlling for potential confounders. In conclusion, irisin and FGF21 are low in AA, and irisin (but not FGF21) is independently associated with bone density and strength in athletes.

Shoulder isokinetic profile of male handball players of the Brazilian National Team

BackgroundData obtained on an isokinetic dynamometer are useful to characterize muscle status and have been reported in muscle imbalance studies in different types of sport. However, few studies have assessed elite handball players to establish reference values. ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to compare, for the dominant (D) and non-dominant (ND) side, the isokinetic profile of shoulder rotator muscle strength between male handball players (H) and asymptomatic non-athletes (NA). MethodIsokinetic concentric and eccentric strength tests for D upper limbs were performed by the H group (n=20) and the NA group (n=12). Internal and external rotator muscle peak torque in concentric action was assessed at 60°/s and 300°/s and in eccentric action at 300°/s. We also calculated conventional balance (the ratio of external rotator peak torque to internal rotator peak torque in concentric action) and functional balance (the ratio of external rotator peak torque in eccentric action to internal rotator peak torque in concentric action). ResultsIn the H group, dominant limbs were stronger in concentric action for external rotation at 60 and 300°/s. The conventional balance ratio for the D side was significantly lower at 60 and 300°/s for H compared to NA. The functional ratio for the D side was significantly lower at 300º/s for H compared to NA. ConclusionsCompared to asymptomatic non-athletes, handball players presented significant muscular imbalance resulting from daily sports practice, a known risk factor for shoulder injuries.

Nocturnal oxytocin secretion is lower in amenorrheic athletes than nonathletes and associated with bone microarchitecture and finite element analysis parameters

Preclinical data indicate that oxytocin, a hormone produced in the hypothalamus and secreted into the peripheral circulation, is anabolic to bone. Oxytocin knockout mice have severe osteoporosis, and administration of oxytocin improves bone microarchitecture in these mice. Data suggest that exercise may modify oxytocin secretion, but this has not been studied in athletes in relation to bone. We therefore investigated oxytocin secretion and its association with bone microarchitecture and strength in young female athletes. Cross-sectional study of 45 females, 14-21 years (15 amenorrheic athletes (AA), 15 eumenorrheic athletes (EA), and 15 nonathletes (NA)), of comparable bone age and BMI. We used high-resolution peripheral quantitative CT to assess bone microarchitecture and finite element analysis to estimate bone strength at the weight-bearing distal tibia and non-weight-bearing ultradistal radius. Serum samples were obtained every 60 min, 2300-0700 h, and pooled for an integrated measure of nocturnal oxytocin secretion. Midnight and 0700 h samples were used to assess diurnal variation of oxytocin. Nocturnal oxytocin levels were lower in AA and EA than in NA. After controlling for estradiol, the difference in nocturnal oxytocin between AA and NA remained significant. Midnight and 0700 h oxytocin levels did not differ between groups. At the tibia and radius, AA had impaired microarchitecture compared with NA. In AA, nocturnal oxytocin correlated strongly with trabecular and cortical microarchitecture, particularly at the non-weight-bearing radius. In regression models that include known predictors of microarchitecture in AA, oxytocin accounted for a substantial portion of the variability in microarchitectural and strength parameters. Nocturnal oxytocin secretion is low in AA compared with NA and associated with site-dependent microarchitectural parameters. Oxytocin may contribute to hypoestrogenemic bone loss in AA.

Exercise Strain Rate Imaging Demonstrates Normal Right Ventricular Contractile Reserve and Clarifies Ambiguous Resting Measures in Endurance Athletes

The significance of reduced right ventricular (RV) deformation reported in endurance athletes (EAs) is unclear, highlighting the ambiguities between physiologic RV remodeling and pathology. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that RV functional reserve would be normal in EAs despite reduced deformation measures at rest. Forty EAs and 15 nonathletes (NAs) performed maximal incremental exercise with simultaneous echocardiographic measures of RV function. Two-dimensional (2D) and color-coded Doppler acquisitions were used to quantify peak systolic strain and strain rate (SRs) for the basal, mid, and apical RV free wall. A second surrogate of contractility, the RV end-systolic pressure-area relationship, was calculated from the tricuspid regurgitant velocity and the RV end-systolic area. Changes in multiple measures obtained throughout exercise were used to assess the affect of exercise on RV contractility. Compared with NAs at rest, basal RV strain and SRs were reduced in EAs, with good agreement between 2D and Doppler methods. During exercise, there was a strong linear correlation between heart rate and global SRs (r = -0.74 and r = -0.84 for Doppler and 2D methods, respectively, P < .0001), which was similar for EAs and NAs (P = .21 and P = .97 for differences in mean regression slopes by Doppler and 2D echocardiography, respectively). Exercise-induced increases in the RV end-systolic pressure-area relationship were also similar for EAs and NAs (P = .42). There was a strong correlation between RV global SRs and the RV end-systolic pressure-area relationship during exercise (r = 0.71, P < .0001). Comparable RV contractile reserve for EAs and NAs suggests that the lower resting values of RV in EAs may represent physiologic changes rather than subclinical myocardial damage.

Disproportionate Exercise Load and Remodeling of the Athlete's Right Ventricle

There is evolving evidence that intense exercise may place a disproportionate load on the right ventricle (RV) when compared with the left ventricle (LV) of the heart. Using a novel method of estimating end-systolic wall stress (ES-σ), we compared the RV and LV during exercise and assessed whether this influenced chronic ventricular remodeling in athletes. For this study, 39 endurance athletes (EA) and 14 nonathletes (NA) underwent resting cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2), and exercise echocardiography studies. LV and RV end-systolic wall stress (ES-σ) were calculated using the Laplace relation (ES-σ = Pr/(2h)). Ventricular size and wall thickness were determined by CMR; invasive and Doppler echo estimates were used to measure systemic and pulmonary ventricular pressures, respectively; and stroke volume was quantified by Doppler echocardiography and used to calculate changes in ventricular geometry during exercise. In EA, compared with NA, resting CMR measures showed greater RV than LV remodeling. The ratios RV ESV/LV ESV (1.40 ± 0.23 vs 1.26 ± 0.12, P = 0.007) and RV mass/LV mass (0.29 ± 0.04 vs 0.25 ± 0.03, P = 0.012) were greater in EA than in NA. RVES-σ was lower at rest than LVES-σ (143 ± 44 vs 252 ± 49 kdyn · cm, P < 0.001) but increased more with strenuous exercise (125% vs 14%, P < 0.001), resulting in similar peak exercise ES-σ (321 ± 106 vs 286 ± 77 kdyn · cm, P = 0.058). Peak exercise RVES-σ was greater in EA than in NA (340 ± 107 vs 266 ± 82 kdyn · cm, P = 0.028), whereas RVES-σ at matched absolute workloads did not differ (P = 0.79). Exercise induces a relative increase in RVES-σ which exceeds LVES-σ. In athletes, greater RV enlargement and greater wall thickening may be a product of this disproportionate load excess.

Do Adolescent Soccer Players Have Greater Skeletal Mineral Density Than Their Non-participant Peers?

Acquisition of a high bone mass during adolescence is a key determinant of adult skeletal health. Although weight-bearing exercises are considered effective strategies for enhancing bone mineral status, relatively little is known about the influence of participation in soccer on bone mass of adolescents. PURPOSE: (1) to evaluate total and regional bone mineral density (BMD) in youth athletes participating regularly in a weight-bearing activity (soccer), and (2) to evaluate relationships between BMD and age, height, body mass, maturity status and soccer participation. METHODS: 151 adolescent boys participated in the cross-sectional study: 117 soccer players (SP) (13.7±1.5 years) and 34 non-athletes (NA) (13.3±1.3 years). SP were actively involved in the sport for at least 3 years (3-5 sessions/week, >300 min/week). NA participated only in the compulsory physical education classes at school (2 sessions/week, each 45-90 min) and did not participate in any kind of regular or organized sport activity for at least 3 years. Estimated maturity offset was used as an indicator of biological maturity status. BMD (g/cm2) of the whole-body, head, ribs, lumbar spine (L1-L4), pelvis, femoral neck, upper and lower limbs were assessed with dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Statistical procedures included unpaired t tests and multiple regression models. SPSS 18 was used in all analyses. RESULTS: (1) No significant differences were observed in age, height, body mass and estimated maturity offset between SP and NA. (2) Whole-body BMD was greater in SP compared to NA (1.04±0.14 vs. 0.96±0.11 g/cm2, p=0.001). (3) SP also had higher BMD (p<0.05) in the lumbar spine (9.8%), femoral neck (27.1%) and lower limbs (left 13.7%, right 12.6%). (4) BMD of the head, ribs, pelvis and upper limbs did not differ between the two groups. (5) Multiple regression analysis indicated that soccer participation and maturity status were positively associated with the whole-body (r2=67%), lumbar spine (r2=68%), femoral neck (r2=67%) and lower limbs (left r2=73%, right r2=59%) BMD. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents SP have higher whole-body, lumbar spine, femoral neck and lower limbs BMD compared with NA. Regular participation in soccer has a positive effect on the bone mineral mass of adolescents, particularly in skeletal areas subjected to impact loading.

From guidelines to practice — Nutritional habits of Hungarian elite athletes compared with the data from the 3rdNational Dietary Survey

This study evaluated the diet of 615 professional athletes (PA) (306 males and 309 females; 21.3±5.5 years) compared with 312 age-matched non-athletes (NA), who participated in the 3 rd Hungarian National Dietary Survey in 2003. Dietary intake was assessed based on 3-day food record. In males, daily energy intake was 3513±1143 kcal and 2965±551 kcal for PA and NA, respectively (P<0.001). In females, there were no significant differences between PA and NA concerning the intake of energy. Athletes reported insufficient energy intake in both genders. Similarly to NA, PA failed to meet the adequate rate for macronutrients. Energy intake from carbohydrates was lower (47.3±6.6% in male and 49.2±7.3% in female) and from lipids higher (36.8±6% in male and 35.2±6.7% in female) than recommended. Athletes reported higher intakes of vitamins C and E, potassium and calcium than NA. Sodium and cholesterol intake was highly above the RDA in every group. Surprisingly, sodium intake of NA was even higher than PA in females (5535±1282 mg/day vs. 5068±2028 mg/day; P<0.05). In addition, iron intake of women was less than two-third of RDA in both groups. In summary, the dietary habits of elite athletes showed many misconceptions and lack of proper nutrition in terms of quality. These findings point out the need for adequate education of athletes and trainers to provide optimal food choice and for continuous monitoring of dietary pattern to maximize exercise performance and improve recovery.

The Comparison of Elite Disabled Athletes, Former Athletes and Non-athletes on Self-Efficacy and Aspects of Physical Self

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare quality of life (QOL), self efficacy towards physical abilities, and likelihood of being physically active between current and former elite disabled athletes and disabled non-athletes. METHODS: To obtain subjects from our athletic population 200 surveys with letters of informed consent were mailed-out to Paralympic athletes and 200 to the U.S. Association of Blind Athletes. For our non-athletic population 200 surveys with letters of informed consent were mailed-out to each of the following organizations: United Cerebral Palsy, American Council of the Blind, United Spinal Association, and the Amputee Coalition of America. Three groups were formed for comparisons: current athletes (CA) (mean ± SD: 32.81 ± 10.38 yrs; n=71), former athletes (FA) (mean ± SD: 41.47 ± 12.37 yrs; n=19), and non-athletes (NA) (mean ± SD: 51.25 ± 15.1 yrs; n=122). Surveys included questions on age and athletic status, as well as the World Health Organization's Quality of Life - Brief (WHOQOL-BREF), ISP-6b physical self, and Confidence (self-efficacy) surveys. A Oneway ANOVA with a Tukey's HSD Post Hoc was used to detect differences between groups. RESULTS: CA had significantly higher scores (p ≤ 0.05) on all 5 areas of confidence towards physical activity (Confidence self-efficacy survey) compared to NA. The FA scored significantly higher than the NA (p ≤ 0.05) on 3 of the 5 areas of confidence towards being physically active (Tired; p ≤ 0.05, Bad mood; p ≤ 0.05, Raining/Snowing; p ≤ 0.05). CA scored significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) on all 5 measures of confidence in physical abilities (ISP-6b physical self) compared to NA, while FA were significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) on 2 of the 5 areas (physical strength and sports competencies) compared to NA. On all 5 domains of QOL, CA scored higher (p ≤ 0.05) than NA. Furthermore, FA were significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) on 1 of the domains (physical) compared to NA. CONCLUSIONS: CA and FA are more likely to engage in exercise, have greater confidence in their physical abilities, and report higher qualities of life compared to NA. Since our findings indicate that disabled athletes tend to be more physically active than disabled non-athletes; future research could look at potential differences in morbidity and rehabilitation recovery rates, as well as longevity.

Optimal Vibrational Frequency And Displacement To Elicit Maximal Skeletal Muscle Activation

Whole body vibration (WBV) has been shown to increase neuromuscular activity; however, there are limited data examining the training protocol that elicits the highest muscular activity during WBV. PURPOSE: This study analyzed the electrical activities of the vastus lateralis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), and rectus femoris (RF) during differing WBV protocols. METHODS: 30 women, 15 athletes (ATH) and 15 non-athletes (NATH), ages 18–35 years, participated in this study. EMG activity was examined during an isometric squat on a WBV platform. The squat was performed at a knee angle of 2.10 rad with the subject either flat footed (SQF) or standing on her toes (SQT). Two displacements (2mm, 5mm) and 4 frequencies (30, 35,40 and 50 Hz) of WBV were tested. Test bouts lasted 10 seconds. A 2 (stance) × 2 (displacement) × 4 (frequency) repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine differences among conditions. A minimum of 2 minutes rest was allotted to reduce the potential for residual fatigue. All test conditions were randomized and administered on the same day. RESULTS: When comparing the SQF baseline to all testing conditions the most consistent significant differences were seen during high displacement at 30 Hz SQF and 30 and 35 Hz SQT. Significant differences were also observed between the SQT baseline and SQF high displacement at 30, 35 and 40 Hz. Additionally significant differences were detected between the SQT baseline and SQT high displacement at 35 and 40 Hz and low displacement at 40Hz. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that the most effective condition for WBV during SQF was a high displacement at 30 Hz, while the SQT condition that elicited the most muscular activity was high displacement at 35 Hz.

Body Dissatisfaction, Anthropometric, And Dietary Intake Differences Among Female College Athletes And Non-athletes

PURPOSE Using the popular framework employed by psychology research investigating eating disorders in female college students, the purpose of this study was to investigate prevalence of body dissatisfaction, and evaluate anthropometric indices, and dietary intake differences among female non-athletes (NA), non-lean sport athletes (A-NLS), and lean sport/aesthetic athletes (A-LS). METHODS The Eating Disorder Inventory-2 Body Dissatisfaction (BD) subscale evaluated body dissatisfaction, self-report and skinfold measurement were used to evaluate anthropometrics, 3-day dietary records evaluated dietary intake. Athletes were recruited at team meetings, NA were recruited from introductory courses from a rural eastern Kentucky university. RESULTS One hundred thirteen subjects (46 NA, 53 A-NLS, 14 A-LS) participated in the study. NA were more body dissatisfied than athletes; 63% of NA, 45% of A-NLS, and 7% of LSA had BD score >12. NA and athletes perceived natural body weight (NBW) to be 102–108% above current body weight (CBW). NA perceived higher NBW than A-NLS despite these groups having similar BD scores and anthropometric indices. Compared to NA, athletes consumed a higher % of calories from carbohydrate (52 ± 8 NA, 57 ± 9 A-NLS, 58 ± 6 A-LS; p=0.0125) and a lower % from fat (32 ± 7 NA, 28 ± 8 A-NLS, 27 ± 5 A-LS; p=0.0050). Protein intake was adequate for all groups. CONCLUSIONS Participation in regular physical activity, as an athlete, is associated with a higher degree of body satisfaction, compared to NA counterparts. Dietary strategies should ensure physically active women consume adequate distribution of calories from carbohydrate and fat, protein appears to be adequate.

Body Dissatisfaction, Anthropometric, And Dietary Intake Differences Among Female College Athletes And Non-athletes

PURPOSE Using the popular framework employed by psychology research investigating eating disorders in female college students, the purpose of this study was to investigate prevalence of body dissatisfaction, and evaluate anthropometric indices, and dietary intake differences among female non-athletes (NA), non-lean sport athletes (A-NLS), and lean sport/aesthetic athletes (A-LS). METHODS The Eating Disorder Inventory-2 Body Dissatisfaction (BD) subscale evaluated body dissatisfaction, self-report and skinfold measurement were used to evaluate anthropometrics, 3-day dietary records evaluated dietary intake. Athletes were recruited at team meetings, NA were recruited from introductory courses from a rural eastern Kentucky university. RESULTS One hundred thirteen subjects (46 NA, 53 A-NLS, 14 A-LS) participated in the study. NA were more body dissatisfied than athletes; 63% of NA, 45% of A-NLS, and 7% of LSA had BD score >12. NA and athletes perceived natural body weight (NBW) to be 102–108% above current body weight (CBW). NA perceived higher NBW than A-NLS despite these groups having similar BD scores and anthropometric indices. Compared to NA, athletes consumed a higher % of calories from carbohydrate (52 ± 8 NA, 57 ± 9 A-NLS, 58 ± 6 A-LS; p=0.0125) and a lower % from fat (32 ± 7 NA, 28 ± 8 A-NLS, 27 ± 5 A-LS; p=0.0050). Protein intake was adequate for all groups. CONCLUSIONS Participation in regular physical activity, as an athlete, is associated with a higher degree of body satisfaction, compared to NA counterparts. Dietary strategies should ensure physically active women consume adequate distribution of calories from carbohydrate and fat, protein appears to be adequate.

Commentary on Steele, Annear & Grove

This paper by Steele, Annear and Grove led to m u c h debate amongs t reviewers and editors of JSMS. Like m a n y good papers , this s tudy raises more quest ions t han it answers . Traditionally, papers on posterior inguinal canal surgery in athletes have been surgical case s tudies wi thout controls tha t report high levels of success for inguinal canal a n d / o r conjoint tendon surgery. A recent exception has been pape r by Eks t rand and Ringborg, which found superior resul ts for surgical t r ea tmen t compared to ongoing conservative m a n a g e m e n t 1 . What leads to a high degree of scept icism abou t these procedures is that, in all of surgical cases reported, every single pat ient operated on is found to have an abnormal or deficient poster ior wall of inguinal canal. This has led Fredberg and Kissmeyer-Nielsen to suggest tha t pe rhaps this pathology is a case of the emperor ' s new clothes, where a surgeon will automat ical ly see 'lesion' he is looking for at t ime of surgical exploration 2. In clinical world, vas t majority of pract i t ioners recognise tha t inguinal canal surgery can lead to good results, with surgeons believing tha t this is due to correcting underlying pathology and certain sceptics feeling tha t enforced res t of surgery along with a heal thy placebo effect are more responsible. There is no doubt tha t s t resses of competitive sport appea r often to lead to b reakdown of conjoint tendon (posterior wall of inguinal canal) in males, a l though this lesion is com m on in non-athle tes as well. Chronic groin pain is far more common clinically in male athletes than females and, even with bias created by different spor ts part icipation amongs t sexes, it seems logical tha t na tura l deficiency in male ana tomy due to inguinal canal is partially responsible. What Steele et al pape r adds is tha t surgical t rea tment of conjoint tendon pathology appears to have a moderate ly high success rate, irrespective of whether underlying pathology is demons t ra ted preoperatively by imaging. The fact tha t those pat ients with positive bone scans had a higher success rate t han t hose with positive u l t rasounds (for inguinal canal deficiency) suggests any or all of following: (1) bone scans are a bet ter investigation for showing cur rent pain arising from pubic region; (2) pat ients with a hot bone scan may benefit more from enforced res t of surgery; (3) bone scans are a more reliable test than u l t rasounds because they are not user -dependent ; and (4) underlying bony patllology can somet imes be successfully t reated by soft t issue surgery (as opposed to bony surgery which has a longer recovery time). Does Steele et al pape r suggest tha t preoperative imaging is a waste of t ime if a surgeon is going to r ecommend inguinal canal surgery irrespective of resul ts? If paper found s ame resul ts with a series of more t han 1000 cases, pe rhaps this conclusion could be drawn. Despite reasonable n u m b e r

Relationship Between Diet and Serum Anabolic Hormone Responses to Heavy-Resistance Exercise in Men

Relationship between dietary intake and serum anabolic hormone concentrations of testosterone (T), free testosterone (FT), and growth hormone were examined at rest as well as after the heavy-resistance exercise (HRE) in 8 strength athletes (SA) and 10 physically active non-athletes (NA). In the first part of the study serum basal anabolic hormone concentrations and dietary intake were examined in the total group of subjects. In the second part of the study a subgroup of 5 SA and 5 NA performed the high volume and high intensity HRE. Dietary intake was registered by dietary diaries for 4 days preceding the loading day. Significant correlations were observed between serum basal T and fat (E%: r = 0.55, p < 0.05, g/kg: r = 0.65, p < 0.01) and protein intake (E%: r = - 0.77, p < 0.001, g/kg: r = - 0.68, p < 0.01) in the total group of subjects. However, when the two groups were examined separately the significant relationships between serum basal T and dietary fat and protein could be noticed in SA only (fat g/kg: SA r = 0.77, p < 0.05; in NA r = 0.44, n.s., protein g/kg: SA r = - 0.84, p < 0.05; in NA r = 0.27, n.s.). Both serum T and FT responses to HRE were correlated with fat (E%: r = 0.85, p < 0.01 and r = 0.73, p < 0.05, g/kg: r = 0.72, p < 0.05 and r = 0.77, p < 0.01) and protein (E%: r = - 0.81, p < 0.01 and r = - 0.69, p < 0.05, g/kg: r = - 0.86, p < 0.01 and r = - 0.65, p < 0.05). The results suggest the possible role of diet leading to alterations in serum T and FT during prolonged strength training, and that diets with insufficient fat and/or excessive protein may compromise the anabolic hormonal environment over a training program.

Drug testing athletes to prevent substance abuse: background and pilot study results of the SATURN (student athlete testing using random notification) study

Purpose To assess the deterrent effect of mandatory, random drug testing among high school (HS) athletes in a controlled setting. Methods Two high schools, one with mandatory drug testing (DT) consent before sports participation, and a control school (C), without DT, were assessed during the 1999–2000 school year. Athletes (A) and nonathletes (NA) in each school completed confidential (A) or anonymous (NA) questionnaires developed for this study, respectively, at the beginning and end of the school year. Positive alcohol or drug tests required parent notification and mandatory counseling without team or school suspension. Thirty percent of the DT athletes were tested. Data were analyzed using the end of the school year measure, adjusted for the initial questionnaire results. Demographics of the athlete sample revealed that mean age was 15.5 years with 81.5% white, 9.6% Hispanic, 4.5% Asian, 2.6% American Indian/Native Alaskan, 1.3% African-American, and 1.3% Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. Results A (n = 276) and NA (n = 507) were assessed at the beginning (baseline) and at the end of the school year (A, n = 159; NA, n = 338). The past 30-day index of illicit drugs (4-fold difference) and athletic enhancing substances (3-fold difference) were lower ( p < .05) among DT athletes at follow-up without difference in alcohol use. However, most drug use risk factors, including norms of use, belief in lower risk of drugs, and poorer attitudes toward the school, increased among DT athletes ( p < .05). Although a reduction in the illicit drug use index was present among nonathletes at the DT school, at the end of the school year, it did not achieve statistical significance ( p < .10). Conclusions Random DT may have reduced substance use among athletes. However, worsening of risk factors and small sample size suggests caution to this drug prevention approach. A larger long-term study to confirm these findings is necessary.

AUTONOMIC REGULATION OF ELITE SHOOTING ATHLETES

1252 A noninvasive method for the exploration for the autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity has been applied to investigate the ANS regulation during exercise and after training. Most of these studies have examined the influence of dynamic aerobic exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate the long-term training effects and acute competition responses of shooting, a static skill, on ANS activity. Nineteen (eleven males, eight females) elite shooting athletes (SA) and twenty-seven non-athletes (NA) were recruited in as subjects. Resting patterns (RP) of heart rate variability (HRV), through the analysis of beat-to-beat variations in the R-R interval of ECG, of SA and NA were compared to evaluate the training effects of shooting. HRV of seven athletes (two males, five females) in the initial 5 min period (IP) and the final 5 min period (FP) of a 50 min simulated shooting competition course were also recorded. The ratio of low frequency to total power spectrum (LF%), and high frequency power spectrum (HF) were used as indexes of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity, respectively. Results revealed that: (1) there is no significant difference between SA and NA in resting ANS. (2) higher LF% is noted in IP than in RP (50.35íÓ26.12% v s 75.12íÓ6.26%), (3) there is no significant difference between LF% of FP and RP, (4) there is no significant difference among HF in RP, IP and FP. It is concluded that long-term shooting training may not be stressful enough to promote the ANS activity. But in the initial period of a competition, the mental stress would activate sympathetic activity which being controlled progressively through special breathing pattern during shooting.

CARDIAC STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF TEENAGE SOCCER PLAYERS 1009

The study was designed to examine the ways teenage athletes hearts' adapt to soccer training. 67 young soccer players (SP) ages 15-18 and 54 non-athletes (NA) in the same age range were tested using echocardiography(Echo). This research was based on the concept that soccer is a sport which requires skills development in both speed and endurance. Compared to NA teens, the Echo of the SP revealed significant data difference: end-diastolic diameter of the left ventricle (LV) was 4.32±0.03 cm in NA and 5.05±0.05 cm in SP (p<0.001); stroke volume was 57.32±1.21 ml and 81.45±2.25 ml (p<0.001); cardiac output was 4.02±0.08 1/min and 4.54 ±0.11 1/min (p<0.001); posterior wall thickness (Td) was 0.73±0.02 cm and 1.05±0.02 cm (p<0.001); myocardium mass of LV (MMLV) was 95.82±3.18g. and 153.19±4.21 (p<0.001), respectively. Mitral valve activity showed decreased velocity of diastolic opening of the anterior leaflet in SP which was 213.75±3.56 and 262.37±3.94 mm/sec in NA (p<0.001). Mitro-septal separation was 1.07±0.03 cm in SP and 0.68±0.02 cm in NA. The Echo findings among athletes demonstrated the tendency of MMLV and Td enlargement in older SP (age 18) compared to age 15. The MMLV was 162.27±5.26g and 147.59±4.72g in younger SP (p<0.2). Td was 1.08±0.02 cm and 1.01 ±0.02 (p<0.2). From these results we conclude that: 1) Simultaneous mild hypertrophy of the myocardium and mild dilation of the heart's chambers are ways to maintain cardiac adaptation in soccer as a result of both aerobic and anaerobic training. 2) The young soccer players have more sufficient mechanisms of mitral valve activity compared to NA which is extremely important in successful sports performance. 3) Experienced 18 years old SP exhibit changes in cardiac structure and functions almost typical for adult athletes.

Moral Reasoning of High School Student Athletes and General Students: An Empirical Study versus Personal Testimony

The purpose of this study was to analyze cognitive moral reasoning of high school student athletes and their nonathlete peers (n = 1,330). Students were evaluated with the Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory in the Sport Milieu. Nonathletes (NA) scored significantly higher (M = 67.75, SEM = 0.39) compared to team sport (TS) athletes (M = 62.10, SEM = 0.40). Females scored significantly higher (M = 68.78, SEM = 0.34) than males (M = 60.97, SEM = 0.38). Female NA (M = 69.54, SEM = 0.33) and female TS athletes (M = 67.50, SEM = 0.35) scored significantly different compared to male TS athletes (M = 59.21, SEM = 0.42). This study supports cognitive research data of collegiate athlete populations. Interscholastic athletes reason from a less consistent, impartial, and reflective moral reasoning than do nonathletes.

The Wingate Test: Effect of Load on the Power Outputs of Female Athletes and Nonathletes

ABSTRACTTo determine the effect of varying load (75, 85, 95 and 105 gm•kg −1) on peak power (PP), mean power (MP) and fatigue index (FI), 46 females, 25 nonathletes (NA), 13 field hockey (FH) and eight softball (SB) players 21.9 ± 3.2 years, performed the 30-Second Wingate Anaerobic Power Test (WAT)