Non-viral Methods Research Articles

Gene-modified T-cell therapy using chimeric antigen receptors for pediatric hematologic malignancies.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) is the generic name for synthetic T cell receptors redirected to tumor-associated antigens. Most CARs consist of an ectodomain (scFv or ligand), a hinge region, a transmembrane domain, and signaling endodomains derived from one or two co-stimulatory molecules (CD28, 4-1BB, etc) and from a CD3-ζ chain. CD19-targeted CAR T cell therapy has achieved major success in the treatment of B cell malignancies. CD19 CAR-T cells elicited complete remission in 70-90% of adult and pediatric patients with relapsed/refractory acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). CD19 CAR T cell therapy from allogeneic donors including third party donors is a potential option for B-cell malignancies. CAR T cell therapies for myeloma, acute myeloid leukemia, and T-cell leukemia are still under development. Our group is currently preparing a phase I study of CD19 CAR T cell therapy in pediatric and young adult patients with ALL using a non-viral gene transfer method, the piggyBac-transposon system.

High-throughput screening of clinically approved drugs that prime polyethylenimine transfection reveals modulation of mitochondria dysfunction response improves gene transfer efficiencies.

Nonviral gene delivery methods are advantageous over viral vectors in terms of safety, cost, and flexibility in design and application, but suffer from lower gene transfer efficiency. In addition to modifications to nucleic acid design and nonviral carriers, new tools are sought to enhance transfection. Priming is the pharmacological modulation of transfection efficiency and transgene expression, and has demonstrated transfection increase in several compounds, for example, chloroquine and glucocorticoids. To develop a library of transfection priming compounds, a high‐throughput screen was performed of the NIH Clinical Collection (NCC) to identify clinical compounds that prime polyethylenimine (PEI) transfection. HEK293T cells were treated with priming compounds, then transfected with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)‐encoding plasmid by PEI. After 48‐hr culture, primed and transfected cells were assayed for transfection, cell proliferation, and cell viability by fluorescence measurement of EGFP reporter, Hoechst 33342 nuclei stain, and resazurin metabolic assay. From the microscope image analysis and microplate measurements, transfection fold‐changes were determined, and compounds resulting in statistically significant transfection fold‐change were identified. NCC compounds were clustered using PubChem fingerprint similarity by Tanimoto coefficients in ChemmineTools. Fold‐changes for each compound were linked to drug clusters, from which drug classes that prime transfection were identified. Among the identified drugs classes that primed transfection increases were antioxidants, GABAA receptor modulators, and glucocorticoids. Resveratrol and piceid, stilbenoid antioxidants found in grapes, and zolpidem, a GABAA modulator, increased transfection nearly three‐fold. Literature indicate interaction of the identified transfection priming drug clusters with mitochondria, which may modulate mitochondrial dysfunction known to be associated with PEI transfection.

Delivery of macromolecules into the endothelium of whole ex vivo human cornea by femtosecond laser-activated carbon nanoparticles

BackgroundThe targeted delivery of drugs or genes into corneal endothelial cells (ECs) during eye banking could help improve graft quality and quantity. Physical methods raising less safety concerns than viral...

41. Therapeutic Level CRISPR-Oligomer-Mediated Correction of X-CGD Patient Hematopoietic Stem Cells Using Non-Viral, cGMP Compliant, Scalable, and Closed System

Gene therapy using integrating viral vectors in hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) has shown clinical benefit in genetic diseases. However, there remain safety concerns associated with random integration and the lack of regulation of gene expression. Efficient and site-specific correction of mutation(s) in HSC using non-viral methods may improve safety and regulation of gene expression. Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) due to defective phagocyte NADPH oxidase complex and lack of bactericidal superoxide and other reactive oxidative species (ROS) is characterized by severe infections and hyperinflammation. Although the X-linked form of CGD with gp91phox deficiency results from mutations that span the CYBB gene, we identified a ‘hotspot’ mutation at Exon 7 c. 676C>T, causing a premature stop codon in 17 out of 285 patients with X-linked CGD at the NIH. Here we report the result of the efficient correction of the hotspot CYBB mutation using highly efficient CRISPR (Cas9 and sgRNA) system with an oligomer as donor repair template, using MaxCyte's commercially/clinically validated cGMP/regulatory compliant and closed platform technology. Plasmids encoding Cas9 and gRNA were purchased from the Genomic Engineering Center at Washington University (St. Louis, MO). The mRNA encoding Cas9 and gRNA were in vitro transcribed at MaxCyte using mMESSAGE mMACHINE® T7 Ultra kit, (Ambion, Austin, TX). We screened and selected best gRNA from four gRNA candidates for correction and then optimized transfection conditions with EBV-transformed B cell line (B-LCL) derived from an adult patient (P1) with the hotspot CYBB mutation. Transfected B-LCL exhibit 80±6% viability, minimal detectable toxicity as determined by cell proliferation rate referenced to control cells, and efficient site-specific gene correction with 20-50% WT gp91 expression. These developed protocols were used to treat G-CSF and pleraxifor mobilized CD34+ HSC from P1. Following optimization, in vitro treated HSC from P1 achieved 20-30% WT gp91 expression, with >50% viability, and minimal loss of cell proliferation capacity compared with control cells. CD34+ HSCs undergo myeloid differentiation in DMEM supplemented with G-CSF prior to functional evaluation using flow cytometric dihydrorhodamine (DHR) assay, demonstrating ~20% ROS+ cells in treated samples compared to ~80% in normal controls. P1's HSC treated the same way were transplanted into immunodeficient mice, and analyzed 8 weeks later. Bone marrow from mice transplanted with P1 treated cells showed CD45+ human cell engraftment rates at 50-80%, and of the forward/side scatter-gated granulocytes, 11-26% express gp91phox relative to 68% in normal control. Peripheral blood from mice demonstrated 11-23% human CD45+ cells, of which 9-21% expressed gp91phox, compared to 79% in normal controls. Deep sequencing of human CD45+ cells sorted from mouse bone marrow confirmed high rates (up to 21%) of genetic correction from the ‘T’ mutation to the wildtype ‘C’. Since female carriers of X-CGD with ~10-15% normal functioning neutrophils appear to have normal resistance to infections, this level of correction at 10-20% in human CD45+ cells from transplanted mice suggest CRISPR/oligo approach a feasible therapeutic option for treatment of CGD patients with the Ex7, c. 676C>T mutation.

213. Detection of Integration Sites of CD19 Chimeric Antigen Receptor Gene in a Non-Viral Gene Transfer System

BACKGROUND: Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells targeting CD19 have exhibited marked activity in hematological malignancies, such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and B-cell lymphomas. Many of these results have been obtained using CD19-CAR T cells established by retro- or lentiviral vectors. We developed a non-viral gene-transfer method using the piggyBac transposon system wherein the CD19-CAR gene was integrated into the genome by cut paste mechanism of the transposase. In this system, the expression of CAR was permanent, and the in vitro and in vivo cytotoxic activity on several cancer cell lines was confirmed. In the process of such gene transfer, however, insertional mutagenesis and subsequent activation of proto-oncogenes are a concern. In this report, we aimed to detect the integration sites of CAR genes to evaluate the safety of our CD19-CAR T cells. METHOD: CD19-CAR T cells were produced by transfecting two plasmids containing piggyBac and a CD19-CAR gene by electroporation. We detected the integration sites of CAR genes by inverse polymerase chain reaction and subsequent next-generation sequencing using MiSeq. An analytic pipeline was developed to identify and to classify the integration sites. Proto-oncogenes were defined according to the Cancer Gene Census of the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer database. RESULTS: We detected 181 independent integration sites of which five were in exons (CASP10, F2R, CYP51A1-AS1, ULBP2, and SLC24A2) and 113 in introns. The integration sites demonstrated no preference for specific sites. Five integration sites (2.8%) were in the introns of known proto-oncogenes (CDK6, MAML2, RAD51B, RUNX1, and EP300). This percentage of integrations into proto-oncogenes is comparable with that of random integration (2.4%) and lower than that of retro- and lentiviral vectors (6.3-10.4%) according to previous report using marker genes (Galvan et al. J Immunother 2009). CONCLUSION: We confirmed that our piggyBac-mediated transduction system randomly transduced the CAR gene into the genomic DNA. Therefore, this system is considered safer than viral vector system in terms of genotoxicity for CAR transduction into human T cells; however, the possibility of leukemic transformation caused by insertional mutagenesis should be carefully monitored by in vivo clonal analysis.

Genetic Modification of T Cells.

Gene transfer technology and its application to human gene therapy greatly expanded in the last decade. One area of investigation that appears particularly promising is the transfer of new genetic material into T cells for the potential treatment of cancer. Herein, we describe several core technologies that now yield high-efficiency gene transfer into primary human T cells. These gene transfer techniques include viral-based gene transfer methods based on modified Retroviridae and non-viral methods such as DNA-based transposons and direct transfer of mRNA by electroporation. Where specific examples are cited, we emphasize the transfer of chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) to T cells, which permits engineered T cells to recognize potential tumor antigens.

Preliminary study on non-viral transfection of F9 (factor IX) gene by nucleofection in human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells.

Background. Hemophilia is a rare recessive X-linked disease characterized by a deficiency of coagulation factor VIII or factor IX. Its current treatment is merely palliative. Advanced therapies are likely to become the treatment of choice for the disease as they could provide a curative treatment.Methods. The present study looks into the use of a safe non-viral transfection method based on nucleofection to express and secrete human clotting factor IX (hFIX) where human adipose tissue derived mesenchymal stem cells were used as target cells in vitro studies and NOD. Cg-Prkdcscid Il2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ mice were used to analyze factor IX expression in vivo studies. Previously, acute liver injury was induced by an injected intraperitoneal dose of 500 mg/kg body weight of acetaminophen.Results. Nucleofection showed a percentage of positive cells ranging between 30.7% and 41.9% and a cell viability rate of 29.8%, and cells were shown to secrete amounts of hFIX between 36.8 and 71.9 ng/mL. hFIX levels in the blood of NSG mice injected with ASCs transfected with this vector, were 2.7 ng/mL 48 h after injection. Expression and secretion of hFIX were achieved both in vitro cell culture media and in vivo in the plasma of mice treated with the transfected ASCs. Such cells are capable of eventually migrating to a previously damaged target tissue (the liver) where they secrete hFIX, releasing it to the bloodstream over a period of at least five days from administration.Conclusions. The results obtained in the present study may form a preliminary basis for the establishment of a future ex vivo non-viral gene/cellular safe therapy protocol that may eventually contribute to advancing the treatment of hemophilia.

Generation of Directly Converted Human Osteoblasts That Are Free of Exogenous Gene and Xenogenic Protein.

Generation of osteoblasts from human somatic cells may be applicable in an effective transplantation therapy against bone diseases. Recently we established a procedure to directly convert human fibroblasts into osteoblasts by transducing some transcription factor genes via retroviral vectors. However, retroviral vector-mediated transduction may potentially cause tumor formation from the infected cells, thus a non-viral gene transfection method may be more preferable for preparation of osteoblasts to be used for transplantation therapy. Here, we constructed a plasmid vector encoding Oct4, Osterix, and L-Myc that were an appropriate combination of transcription factors for this purpose. Osteoblast-like phenotypes including high alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, bone matrix production and osteoblast-specific gene expression were induced in normal human fibroblasts that were transfected with the plasmid followed by culturing in osteogenic medium. The plasmid-driven directly converted osteoblasts (p-dOBs) were obtained even in the absence of a xenogenic protein. The plasmid vector sequence had fallen out of the p-dOBs. The cells formed deposition of calcified bodies in situ after transplantation into mice. These results strongly suggest that p-dOBs can be put into practical use for a novel cell-based therapy against bone diseases. J. Cell. Biochem. 117: 2538-2545, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A Simple and Efficient In Vivo Non-viral RNA Transfection Method for Labeling the Whole Axonal Tree of Individual Adult Long-Range Projection Neurons.

We report a highly efficient, simple, and non-infective method for labeling individual long-range projection neurons (LRPNs) in a specific location with enough sparseness and intensity to allow complete and unambiguous reconstructions of their entire axonal tree. The method is based on the “in vivo” transfection of a large RNA construct that drives the massive expression of green fluorescent protein. The method combines two components: injection of a small volume of a hyperosmolar NaCl solution containing the Pal-eGFP-Sindbis RNA construct (Furuta et al., 2001), followed by the application of high-frequency electric current pulses through the micropipette tip. We show that, although each component alone increases transfection efficacy, compared to simple volume injections of standard RNA solution, the highest efficacy (85.7%) is achieved by the combination of both components. In contrast with the infective viral Sindbis vector, RNA transfection occurs exclusively at the position of the injection micropipette tip. This method simplifies consistently labeling one or a few isolated neurons per brain, a strategy that allows unambiguously resolving and quantifying the brain-wide and often multi-branched monosynaptic circuits created by LRPNs.

Different Influences of Lipofection and Electrotransfection on In Vitro Gene Delivery to Primary Cultured Cortex Neurons

Background: Many pain states are linked to central nervous system (CNS) diseases involving the dysfunction of dendritic arborization, making restoration a promising therapeutic strategy. Transfection of primary cortex neurons offers the possibility to study mechanisms which are important for the restoration of proper arborization. Its progress is, however, limited at present due to the lack of suitable gene transfer techniques. Objective: To obtain better insight into the transfection potential of currently used techniques, 2 non-viral transfection methods, lipofection and gene electrotransfer (GET), were compared. Study Design: This is a comparison study performed on cultured cells. Methods: The transfection efficiency and neuronal viability, as well as the neuronal dendritic arborization after lipofection or GET, were compared. Primary cultured cortex neurons were transfected with the pEGFP-N1 plasmid, either using Lipofectamine 2000 (2, 3, or 4μL) or with electroporation, with our previously optimized protocol (200V/25 ms). Results: Transfection efficiency and cell viability were inversely proportional for lipofection. The appropriate ratio of Lipofectamine and plasmid DNA provides optimal conditions for lipofection. Although GET offered higher transfection efficiency, it could not induce complex dendritic arborization, which made it unsuitable for in vitro gene transfer into cortex neurons. Limitations: Limitations include species variability and translational applicability for CNS diseases and pain states related to potential toxicity. Conclusions: Based on these findings, lipofection might be advantageous for in vitro application to primary cultured cortex neurons. Pain states, stress mediated pathogenesis, and certain CNS diseases might potentially utilize this important technique in the future as a therapeutic modality. Key words: Lipofection, gene electrotransfer, CNS diseases, pain states, dendritic arborization, transfection of primary cortex neurons

Cardiomyocytes Derived from MHC-Homozygous Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Exhibit Reduced Allogeneic Immunogenicity in MHC-Matched Non-human Primates.

SummaryInduced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can serve as a source of cardiomyocytes (CMs) to treat end-stage heart failure; however, transplantation of genetically dissimilar iPSCs even within species (allogeneic) can induce immune rejection. We hypothesized that this might be limited by matching the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens between the donor and the recipient. We therefore transplanted fluorescence-labeled (GFP) iPSC-CMs donated from a macaque with homozygous MHC haplotypes into the subcutaneous tissue and hearts of macaques having heterozygous MHC haplotypes (MHC-matched; group I) or without identical MHC alleles (group II) in conjunction with immune suppression. Group I displayed a higher GFP intensity and less immune-cell infiltration in the graft than group II. However, MHC-matched transplantation with single or no immune-suppressive drugs still induced a substantial host immune response to the graft. Thus, the immunogenicity of allogeneic iPSC-CMs was reduced by MHC-matched transplantation although a requirement for appropriate immune suppression was retained for successful engraftment.

Generation of OCIAD1 inducible overexpression human embryonic stem cell line: BJNhem20-OCIAD1-Tet-On

Human embryonic stem cell line BJNhem20-OCIAD1-Tet-On was generated using non-viral method. The constructs pCAG-Tet-On and pTRE-Tight vector driving OCIAD1 expression were transfected using microporation procedure. pCAG-Tet-On cells can be used for inducible expression of any coding sequence cloned into pTRE-Tight vector. For example, in human embryonic stem cells, Tet-On system has been used to generate SOX2 overexpression cell line (Adachi et al., 2010).

Generation of a constitutively expressing Tetracycline repressor (TetR) human embryonic stem cell line BJNhem20-TetR

Human embryonic stem cell line BJNhem20-TetR was generated using non-viral method. The construct pCAG-TetRnls was transfected using microporation procedure. BJNhem20-TetR can subsequently be transfected with any vector harbouring a TetO (Tet operator) sequence to generate doxycycline based inducible line. For example, in human embryonic stem cells, the pSuperior based TetO system has been transfected into a TetR containing line to generate OCT4 knockdown cell line (Zafarana et al., 2009). Thus BJNhem20-TetR can be used as a tool to perturb gene expression in human embryonic stem cells.

Generation of human embryonic stem cell line expressing a red fluorescent protein: BJNhem20-pCAG-tdTomato

Human embryonic stem cell line BJNhem20-pCAG-tdTomato was generated using non-viral method. The construct pCAG-tdTomato was transfected using microporation procedure. This fluorescent hESC line can help to study heterogeneity within individual cells in hESC colonies by enabling live tracking of their growth, migration and differentiation properties. This cell line also serves as a resource for additional transgene introduction/knock-out/knock-in generation in a fluorescent background and allows ease of analysis in studies involving cell mixing.

AT2R Gene Delivered by Condensed Polylysine Complexes Attenuates Lewis Lung Carcinoma after Intravenous Injection or Intratracheal Spray.

Transfection efficiency and toxicity concerns remain a challenge for gene therapy. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) have been broadly investigated to improve the transfection of genetic material (e.g., pDNA and siRNA). Here, a synthetic CPP (polylysine, K9 peptide) was complexed with angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) plasmid DNA (pAT2R) and complexes were condensed using calcium chloride. The resulting complexes were small (∼150 nm) and showed high levels of gene expression in vitro and in vivo. This simple nonviral formulation approach showed negligible cytotoxicity in four different human cell lines (cervix, breast, kidney, and lung cell lines) and one mouse cell line (a lung cancer cell line). In addition, this K9-pDNA-Ca(2+) complex demonstrated cancer-targeted gene delivery when administered via intravenous injection or intratracheal spray. The transfection efficiency was evaluated in Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cell lines cultured in vitro and in orthotopic cancer grafts in syngeneic mice. Immunohistochemical analysis confirmed that the complex effectively delivered pAT2R to the cancer cells, where it was expressed mainly in cancer cells along with bronchial epithelial cells. A single administration of these complexes markedly attenuated lung cancer growth, offering preclinical proof-of-concept for a novel nonviral gene delivery method exhibiting effective lung tumor gene therapy via either intravenous or intratracheal administration.

Nanoparticle-mediated conversion of primary human astrocytes into neurons and oligodendrocytes.

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases and injuries are accompanied by reactive gliosis and scarring involving the activation and proliferation of astrocytes to form hypertrophic and dense structures, which present a significant barrier to neural regeneration. Engineering astrocytes to functional neurons or oligodendrocytes may constitute a novel therapeutic strategy for CNS diseases and injuries. Such direct cellular programming has been successfully demonstrated using viral vectors via the transduction of transcriptional factors, such as Sox2, which could program resident astrocytes into neurons in the adult brain and spinal cord, albeit the efficiency was low. Here we report a non-viral nanoparticle-based transfection method to deliver Sox2 or Olig2 into primary human astrocytes and demonstrate the effective conversion of the astrocytes into neurons and oligodendrocyte progenitors following the transgene expression of Sox2 and Olig2, respectively. This approach is highly translatable for engineering astrocytes to repair injured CNS tissues.

Generation of human embryonic stem cell line expressing green fluorescent protein

Human embryonic stem cell line BJNhem20 pCAG-EGFP was generated using non-viral method (Fig. 1). The construct pCAG-EGFP was transfected using microporation procedure

Deterministic transfection drives efficient nonviral reprogramming and uncovers reprogramming barriers

Safety concerns and/or the stochastic nature of current transduction approaches have hampered nuclear reprogramming's clinical translation. We report a novel non-viral nanotechnology-based platform permitting deterministic large-scale transfection with single-cell resolution. The superior capabilities of our technology are demonstrated by modification of the well-established direct neuronal reprogramming paradigm using overexpression of the transcription factors Brn2, Ascl1, and Myt1l (BAM). Reprogramming efficiencies were comparable to viral methodologies (up to ~9-12%) without the constraints of capsid size and with the ability to control plasmid dosage, in addition to showing superior performance relative to existing non-viral methods. Furthermore, increased neuronal complexity could be tailored by varying BAM ratio and by including additional proneural genes to the BAM cocktail. Furthermore, high-throughput NEP allowed easy interrogation of the reprogramming process. We discovered that BAM-mediated reprogramming is regulated by AsclI dosage, the S-phase cyclin CCNA2, and that some induced neurons passed through a nestin-positive cell stage. From the Clinical EditorIn the field of regenerative medicine, the ability to direct cell fate by nuclear reprogramming is an important facet in terms of clinical application. In this article, the authors described their novel technique of cell reprogramming through overexpression of the transcription factors Brn2, Ascl1, and Myt1l (BAM) by in situ electroporation through nanochannels. This new technique could provide a platform for further future designs.

Non-viral Delivery Systems for the Application in p53 Cancer Gene Therapy.

A key barrier to the development of gene therapy remains the lack of safe, efficient and easily controllable vehicles for gene delivery. The fundamental problems associated with the viral vehicles, e.g. lack of specificity and immunogenic potential, have driven the development of non-viral systems of gene delivery. In the last decade, studies on p53 gene replacement therapy have dominated the literature. Although clinical trials of p53 gene therapy have achieved limited success, it remains the only tumor suppressor gene to be evaluated formally in clinical trials for cancer treatment, with increasing focus on delivery using non-viral systems. In this article, we particularly review current investigations on p53 gene delivery using non-viral methods, including both physical and chemical approaches, with an emphasis on the latter. The existing opportunities and challenges for successful p53 cancer gene therapy are also discussed.

Layer‐by‐layer inorganic/polymeric nanoparticles for kinetically controlled multigene delivery

Nonviral gene delivery methods represent a potential safe and effective approach for treating myriad diseases. For many gene therapy applications, delivering multiple exogenous genes and controlling the time profile that these genes are expressed would be advantageous. Polymeric nonviral gene carriers are versatile and can be readily tailored for particular therapeutic applications, have the ability to carry multiple large genes within each particle, and can be more easily manufactured than viruses used for gene delivery. A layer-by-layer (LbL) theranostic-enabling nanoparticle was developed to incorporate two plasmid types which have differing expression time profiles. Temporally controlling the expression of exogenous DNA enables superior control over the microenvironment and could lead to better control over differentiation pathways and cell fate. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 104A: 707-713, 2016.