Nonverbal Memory Tasks Research Articles

Speech illusions and working memory performance in non-clinical psychosis

Psychotic disorders are characterized by auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs), and research has shown that AVHs are linked to deficits in working memory. Our understanding of AVHs across the psychosis continuum is limited. To date, little research has tested whether hallucination proneness (HP) is linked with abnormalities on experimental multispeaker babble tasks. Few investigations have been conducted to determine how task performance might be linked to cognitive functioning. The objective of the current study is to better understand this empirical gap. A total of 70 adults (30 healthy controls and 40 HP individuals) were administered an experimental task in which they listened to multispeaker babble and were instructed to report any words or chains of consecutive words (CCWs) perceived. Participants also were administered nonverbal and verbal working memory tasks. Findings revealed that relative to the control group, the HP individuals perceived more words and longer CCWs during the task. While there were no significant differences in working memory tasks between the HP and control groups, longer CCW's were associated with decreased verbal working memory scores in the HP group. AVH proneness may occur across a continuum of psychosis and may be linked with other theoretically relevant cognitive vulnerability factors.

Real‐time activation of central cholinergic circuits during recognition memory

Short latency afferent inhibition (SAI) is a paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) protocol that consists in the inhibition of the motor evoked potentials (MEPs) by afferent sensory impulses. SAI is thought to be mediated by cholinergic projections over M1 and can be considered a putative marker of central cholinergic activity. It is known that memory processes are regulated by acetylcholine. Nonetheless, the influence of memory tasks on SAI has not been investigated. Here we tested changes in SAI circuits in healthy subjects performing a computerized non-verbal recognition memory task (RMT) requiring to recognize previously encoded faces. SAI protocol was recorded during five phases of the RMT: baseline, encoding, consolidation, retrieval, and post-task. In the control task, subjects were asked to judge a visual feature of not previously presented faces. SAI protocol was applied over the same conditions as in the RMT. We found that SAI remarkably increases during the retrieval phase of the RMT as compared to baseline. On the other hand no change was observed during the control task. These findings show that SAI can be modulated by ongoing memory processes and support the hypothesis that SAI can be considered as a neurophysiological marker of central cholinergic activity.

Does Environmental Experience Shape Spatial Cognition? Frames of Reference Among Ancash Quechua Speakers (Peru).

Previous studies have shown that language contributes to humans' ability to orient using landmarks and shapes their use of frames of reference (FoRs) for memory. However, the role of environmental experience in shaping spatial cognition has not been investigated. This study addresses such a possibility by examining the use of FoRs in a nonverbal spatial memory task among residents of an Andean community in Peru. Participants consisted of 97 individuals from Ancash Quechua-speaking households (8-77years of age) who spoke Quechua and/or Spanish and varied considerably with respect to the extent of their experience in the surrounding landscape. The results demonstrated that environmental experience was the only factor significantly related to the preference for allocentric FoRs. The study thus shows that environmental experience can play a role alongside language in shaping habits of spatial representation, and it suggests a new direction of inquiry into the relationships among language, thought, and experience.

Executive control processes in verbal and nonverbal working memory

AbstractStudies across the lifespan have revealed modifications in executive control (EC) from bilingualism, but studies of working memory (WM), a key aspect of EC, have produced varied results. Healthy older (M = 71.0 years) and younger participants (M = 21.1 years) who were monolingual or bilingual, performed working memory tasks that varied in their demands for EC. Tasks included a star counting task, a flanker task, and a nonverbal recent probe memory task. Bilinguals performed similarly to monolinguals on the star counting task after controlling for differences in vocabulary. Monolinguals were faster than bilinguals on the flanker task with only age group differences significant for the WM manipulation. Bilinguals were faster than monolinguals on the nonverbal recent probe memory task, particularly for the condition that included proactive interference. The interpretation is that better bilingual performance in nonverbal working memory tasks is linked to the need for executive control.

Modulating Memory Performance in Healthy Subjects with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Over the Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex.

ObjectiveThe role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) in recognition memory has been well documented in lesion, neuroimaging and repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) studies. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) over the left and the right DLPFC during the delay interval of a non-verbal recognition memory task.Method36 right-handed young healthy subjects participated in the study. The experimental task was an Italian version of Recognition Memory Test for unknown faces. Study included two experiments: in a first experiment, each subject underwent one session of sham tDCS and one session of left or right cathodal tDCS; in a second experiment each subject underwent one session of sham tDCS and one session of left or right anodal tDCS.ResultsCathodal tDCS over the right DLPFC significantly improved non verbal recognition memory performance, while cathodal tDCS over the left DLPFC had no effect. Anodal tDCS of both the left and right DLPFC did not modify non verbal recognition memory performance.ConclusionComplementing the majority of previous studies, reporting long term memory facilitations following left prefrontal anodal tDCS, the present findings show that cathodal tDCS of the right DLPFC can also improve recognition memory in healthy subjects.

Nonverbal Working Memory as a Predictor of Anomia Treatment Success.

The purpose of the study was to determine (a) reliability of the spatial span as a nonverbal working memory (WM) task in individuals with aphasia, (b) whether participation in anomia treatment changed spatial span scores, and (c) the degree to which visuospatial WM predicted response to anomia treatment. Eight individuals with chronic aphasia were repeatedly assessed on the forward and backward conditions of the spatial span over 4 weeks while undergoing treatment for anomia. Experiment 1 assessed reliability of the spatial span conditions and determined whether span scores changed after beginning anomia treatment. Experiment 2 investigated the spatial span as a predictor of anomia treatment success. Results of Experiment 1 showed that 7 participants demonstrated stability of the forward condition of the spatial span, and 5 participants demonstrated stability of the backward condition across all sessions (p = .05). No participants showed an effect of aphasia treatment on span performance in either condition. Experiment 2 found that the backward span condition significantly predicted anomia treatment effect size, F(1, 6) = 15.202, p = .008. Visuospatial WM abilities were highly predictive of response to anomia treatment, supporting an account of WM that includes a central processing mechanism.

How language impacts memory of motion events in English and French.

This paper examines whether cross-linguistic differences in motion encoding affect event processing, specifically memory performance. We compared speakers of two languages which differ strikingly in how they habitually encode MANNER and PATH of motion (Talmy in Toward a cognitive semantics: typology and process in concept structuring, 2nd edn, vol 2. MIT Press, Cambridge, 2000). We tested French and English adult native speakers across three tasks that recruited and/or suppressed verbal processing to different extents: verbal event descriptions elicited on the basis of dynamic motion stimuli, a verbal memory task testing the impact of prior verbalisation on target recognition, and a non-verbal memory task, using a dual-task paradigm to suppress internal verbalisation. Results showed significant group differences in the verbal description task, which mirrored expected typological tendencies. English speakers more frequently expressed both MANNER and PATH information than French speakers, who produced more descriptions encoding either PATH or MANNER alone. However, these differences in linguistic encoding did not significantly affect speakers' memory performance in the memory recognition tasks, neither in the verbal nor in the non-verbal condition. The findings contribute to current debates regarding the conditions under which language effects occur and the relative weight of language-specific and universal constraints on spatial cognition.

OP59 – 2642: Cognitive functions in children with frontal and temporal epilepsy – Long term observations

Objective In order to compare the cognitive functions in children with newly diagnosed temporal (TLE) versus frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) and control group which consisted of healthy children the following prospective study was performed. Material and methods 39 children with TLE 24 children with FLE and 24 healthy subject were included in study. Each child had neuropsychology assessment using age-normed and validated instruments. The applied test battery consisted of measures assessing both intelligence as well as executive and motor skills. The children were reassessed one and two years. Results In all epilepsy patients there was no evidence of anatomical brain damage. There were no differences in mean age and gender between the groups. There was no significant difference in global IQ scores between the groups. Children with FLE had significantly lower scores than the other two groups in non-verbal memory tasks, presented higher attention deficit and had slower performance speed. The TLE group performed significantly worse as compared with control group in verbal learning and performance speed with no differences in attention. The correlations between the results of test and the localization of epileptic foci were performed. In long term outcome the “frontal” group performed significantly worse than other groups. detailed analysis of cognitive impairment was performed. Conclusion The children with new onset FLE present with more severe cognitive and attention problems in course of disease compared with TLE group, however the TLE group differ significantly in some measures with control group.

Impaired sleep-related consolidation of declarative memories in idiopathic focal epilepsies of childhood

ObjectiveDeclarative memory is consolidated during sleep in healthy children. We tested the hypothesis that consolidation processes are impaired in idiopathic focal epilepsies (IFE) of childhood in association with frequent interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs) during sleep. MethodsA verbal (word-pair association) and a nonverbal (2D object location) declarative memory task were administrated to 15 children with IFEs and 8 control children 6–12years of age. Patients had either centrotemporal (11 patients) or occipital (4 patients) IEDs. All but 3 patients had a history of unprovoked seizures, and 6 of them were treated with valproate (VPA). The learning procedure (location of object pairs presented on a grid; association of word pairs) was executed in the evening. Retrieval was tested immediately after learning and on the next morning after a night of sleep. Participants were tested twice, once in natural home conditions and one month later in the unfamiliar conditions of the sleep unit under EEG monitoring. ResultsOvernight recall performance was lower in children with IFE than in control children on both tasks (ps<0.05). Performance in home conditions was similar to that in hospital conditions. Higher spike–wave index (SWI) during nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep was associated with poorer performance in the nonverbal task (p<0.05). Valproate treatment was not associated with overnight recall performance for both tasks (ps>0.05). ConclusionMemory consolidation is impaired in IFE of childhood. The association between higher SWI during NREM sleep and poorer nonverbal declarative memory consolidation supports the hypothesis that interictal epileptic activity could disrupt sleep memory consolidation.

The utility of a non-verbal prospective memory measure as a sensitive marker for early-stage Alzheimer's disease in Hong Kong.

ABSTRACT Background: With the proportion of older adults in Hong Kong projected to double in size in the next 30 years, it is important to develop measures for detecting individuals in the earliest stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD, 0.5 in Clinical Dementia Rating, CDR). We tested the utility of a non-verbal prospective memory task (PM, ability to remember what one has to do when a specific event occurs in the future) as an early marker for AD in Hong Kong Chinese. Methods: A large community dwelling sample of older adults who are healthy controls (CDR 0, N = 125), in the earliest stage of AD (CDR 0.5, N = 125), or with mild AD (CDR 1, N = 30) participated in this study. Their reaction time/accuracy data were analyzed by mixed-factor analyses of variance to compare the performance of the three CDR groups. Logistic regression analyses were performed to test the discriminative power of these measures for CDR 0 versus 0.5 participants. Results: Prospective memory performance declined as a function of AD severity: CDR 0 > CDR 0.5 > CDR 1, suggesting the effects of early-stage AD and AD progression on PM. After partialling out the variance explained by psychometric measures (e.g., ADAS-Cog), reaction time/accuracy measures that reflected the PM still significantly discriminated between CDR 0 versus 0.5 participants in most of the cases. Conclusion: The effectiveness of PM measures in discriminating individuals in the earliest stage of AD from healthy older adults suggests that these measures should be further developed as tools for early-stage AD discrimination.

A-12 * Screening for Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) with the Mini-Mental Status Exam (MMSE) and Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF)

Objective: Research has acknowledged that the MMSE has limited utility for detecting MCI, which has been attributed to a reduced evaluation of executive skills and intrinsic bias of using verbal task items. Researchers suggest the addition of 1–2 neuropsychological instruments may improve diagnostic accuracy. This study sought to improve diagnostic accuracy of the MMSE by adding a nonverbal memory task (ROCF) known to evaluate executive functioning. Method: The sample consisted of 138 non-demented individuals (Age: M = 61.40, SD = 11.17; Edu: M = 16.36, SD = 3.03) who were administered a neuropsychological battery. After the evaluation, 58 individuals (42.0%) where diagnosed with MCI. A univariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine independent significant predictors of MCI. A multivariate logistic regression was constructed based on significant predictors. Results: A univariate analysis revealed the MMSE and ROCF(Copy, 3-minute Delay, Retention) were predictive of MCI. The MMSE independently correctly classified 73.9% of individuals (correctly classified 88.8% of normals and 53.4% with MCI). The multivariate model correctly classified 84.8% of individuals (correctly classified 92.5% of normals and 74.1% with MCI). Significant predictors in the model included the MMSE (OR = 0.26, p < 0.001), ROCF Retention (OR = 1.06, p = 0.024), Copy (OR = 0.45, p = 0.002), and Delay (OR = 0.29, p = 0.009). Conclusion(s): Results suggest the addition of a nonverbal memory and executive functioning test to the MMSE improves detection of MCI in the screening process.

Episodic memory impairments in bipolar disorder are associated with functional and structural brain changes.

We combined multimodal functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and structural magnetic resonance imaging to probe abnormalities in brain circuits underpinning episodic memory performance deficits in patients with bipolar disorder (BD). We acquired whole-brain fMRI data in 21 patients with BD and a matched group of 20 healthy controls during a non-verbal episodic memory task, using abstract shapes. We also examined density of gray matter, using voxel-based morphometry (VBM), and integrity of connecting fiber tracts, using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and tract-based spatial statistics, for areas with significant activation differences. Patients with BD remembered less well than controls which shapes they had seen and had lower activation levels during the encoding stage of the task in the anterior cingulate gyrus, the precuneus/cuneus bilaterally, and the left lingual gyrus, and higher activation levels during the retrieval stage in the left temporo-parietal junction. Patients with BD showed reduced gray matter volumes in the left anterior cingulate, the precuneus/cuneus bilaterally, and the left temporo-parietal region in comparison with controls. DTI revealed increased radial, axial, and mean diffusivity in the left superior longitudinal fascicle in patients with BD compared with controls. Changes in task-related activation in frontal and parietal areas were associated with poorer episodic memory in patients with BD. Compared with data from single imaging modalities, integration of multimodal neuroimaging data enables the building of more complete neuropsychological models of mental disorders.

A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study of Working Memory in Youth after Sports-Related Concussion: Is It Still Working?

Abstract In children, the importance of detecting deficits after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) or concussion has grown with the increasing popularity of leisure physical activities and contact sports. Whereas most postconcussive symptoms (PCS) are similar for children and adults, the breadth of consequences to children remains largely unknown. To investigate the effect of mTBI on brain function, we compared working memory performance and related brain activity using blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 15 concussed youths and 15 healthy age-matched control subjects. Neuropsychological tests, self-perceived PCS, and levels of anxiety and depression were also assessed. Our results showed that, behaviorally, concussed youths had significantly worse performances on the working memory tasks, as well as on the Rey figure delayed recall and verbal fluency. fMRI results revealed that, compared to healthy children, concussed youths had significantly reduced task-related activity in bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, left premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, and left superior parietal lobule during performance of verbal and nonverbal working memory tasks. Additionally, concussed youths also showed less activation than healthy controls in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, left thalamus, and left caudate nucleus during the nonverbal task. Regression analysis indicated that BOLD signal changes in bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were significantly correlated with performance such that greater activities in these regions, relative to the control condition, were associated with greater accuracy. Our findings confirmed functional alterations in brain activity after concussion in youths, a result similar to that observed in adults. However, significant differences were noted. In particular, the observation of reduced working memory accuracy suggests that youths may be unable to engage compensatory strategies to maintain cognitive performance after mTBI. This has significant implications for safe return to daily activities, including competitive sport.

The relationship between inhibition and working memory in predicting children's reading difficulties

The study evaluated the role of working memory and inhibition in predicting children's word reading difficulties. Twenty‐one participants with word reading difficulties were individually matched to two other participants to form the chronological‐age‐matched and the reading‐level‐matched group. All participants were administered measures of performance IQ, inhibition and working memory. Multinomial logistic regression revealed that tasks of working memory and a composite measure of inhibition discriminated between the groups above the impact of performance IQ when the working memory task was verbally based, but only inhibition discriminated when a nonverbal working memory task was used. This suggests domain‐specific deficits on tasks of working memory, independent of the influence of inhibition on reading difficulties. The implications for theory and assessment practice are discussed.Practitioner pointsWhat is already known about this topic Children with reading difficulties show impairments with some executive function tasks. Discrepant findings reported in the literature may be related to task modality (e.g. verbal or nonverbal response).What this paper adds Tasks of inhibition and working memory, which required a verbal response discriminated children with reading difficulties from both chronological‐age‐matched and reading‐level‐matched control groups. However, when working memory tasks that placed fewer demands on participants' language skills were used, they did not successfully discriminate between the groups. Executive function task performance was more predictive of reading group membership than general performance measures of cognitive abilities (IQ). Results suggest a deficit with inhibition and verbal working memory, which was not due to slower developing language skills.Implications for practice and/or policy Educational and School Psychologists, Special Educational Needs Advisers and Coordinators, and others engaged in the identification of reading difficulties should consider including tests of inhibition in assessments of executive function.

Neuropsychological functioning in young subjects with generalized anxiety disorder with and without pharmacotherapy

The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuropsychological functioning and the effect of antidepressant drug intake on cognitive performance in a group of relatively young generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) patients. Forty patients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of GAD and 31 healthy subjects participated in the study (Control group, CON). None of the selected subjects had comorbid depression. GAD subjects were divided into two different subgroups: 18 were taking antidepressants [GAD-pharmacotherapy (GAD-p group)] and 22 were treatment-naïve (GAD group). Each group was administered with a comprehensive neuropsychological battery to assess attention, memory and executive functions. Performance on executive and non-verbal memory tasks of both GAD groups was largely worse than the CON group. However, these deficits seem to be more marked in patients taking antidepressants, especially in the domains of attention, non-verbal memory and executive functions. The present study indicates that GAD is associated with cognitive impairments among young adults. However, the observed association of neuropsychological deficits and the use of pharmacotherapy suggest a possible effect of antidepressant treatment on attention, executive functioning and non-verbal memory.

Working memory in youth following sports-related concussion: is it still working? an fMRI study

ObjectiveTo compare working memory performance and related brain activity using fMRI in concussed youth and healthy age-matched control subjects.DesignStandard T1 and T2* weighted echo planar images for blood oxygenation level...

Accelerated long-term forgetting in temporal lobe epilepsy: Verbal, nonverbal and autobiographical memory

Patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) often present with memory complaints despite performing within normal limits on standard memory tests. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is accelerated long-term forgetting (ALF). The present study investigated material‐specific ALF in patients with unilateral TLE and also examined whether ALF could be demonstrated on a novel, standardized anterograde autobiographical memory (ABM) task. Fourteen patients with TLE and 17 controls were administered verbal, nonverbal and ABM event memory tasks. The participants were tested for immediate recall, recall and recognition at 30‐minute delay, and recall and recognition after four weeks. The extent of ALF was calculated based on the percentage decay of memory from the 30‐minute delay trial to the four-week delay trial. Patients with left TLE showed significantly greater ALF for verbal material and a trend towards greater forgetting of ABM. Patients with right TLE showed a non-significant trend towards greater ALF for nonverbal material. Patients with unilateral hippocampal abnormalities showed greater ALF compared to patients without hippocampal abnormalities. Patients with seizures that generalize had more global memory deficits and greater ALF. We conclude that patients with unilateral TLE show material‐specific ALF, which appears to be more pronounced with an abnormal hippocampus or seizures that secondarily generalize.

MK EFFECT OF AGE AT ONSET AND DURATION OF EPILEPSY ON MEMORY ENCODING IN TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY

RationaleEarlier age at onset and longer duration of epilepsy is associated with more severe neuropsychological impairment in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and medial temporal lobe (MTL)...

Neurocognition in the Extended Psychosis Phenotype: Performance of a Community Sample of Adolescents With Psychotic Symptoms on the MATRICS Neurocognitive Battery

Neurocognitive dysfunction is well established in psychosis, but recent work suggests that processing speed deficits might represent a particularly important cognitive deficit. A number of significant confounds, however, such as disease chronicity and antipsychotic medication use, have been shown to affect processing speed, causing debate as to the core cognitive features of psychosis. We adopted a novel strategy of testing neurocognitive performance in the "extended psychosis phenotype," involving community-based adolescents who are not clinically psychotic but who report psychotic symptoms and who are at increased risk of psychosis in adulthood. This allows investigation of the earliest cognitive factors associated with psychosis risk, while excluding potential confounds such as disease chronicity and antipsychotic use. A population sample of 212 school-going adolescents aged 11-13 years took part in this study. Psychotic symptoms were assessed using the psychosis section of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Neurocognition was assessed using the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS) consensus neurocognitive battery. Adolescents with psychotic symptoms performed significantly more poorly on 3 processing speed tasks: Trail Making Test-A (F = 3.3, P < .05), Trail Making Test-B (F = 3.1, P < .05), and digit symbol coding task (F = 7.0, P < .001)-as well as on a nonverbal working memory (spatial span) task (F = 3.2, P < .05). Our findings support the idea that neurocognitive impairment, and processing speed impairment in particular, is a core feature of psychosis risk. This group likely demonstrates some of the earliest cognitive impairments associated with psychosis vulnerability.

Poor Comprehenders in the Classroom

Differing etiological explanations have been proposed to account for poor comprehenders’ difficulties with reading comprehension, with some researchers emphasizing working memory deficits and others arguing for oral language weaknesses playing a key causal role. The authors contrasted these two theoretical accounts using data obtained from direct measures of working memory and from teacher ratings of poor comprehenders’ behavior in the classroom. At the group level, poor comprehenders showed weaknesses on verbal but not nonverbal working memory tasks, in keeping with the “language account.” However, they also showed evidence of elevated levels of problem behaviors specifically associated with working memory deficits. Further analysis revealed that these group differences in working-memory-related problem behaviors were carried by a small subgroup of poor comprehenders who also displayed domain-general (verbal and nonverbal) working memory problems, argued to be reflective of “genuine” underlying working memory deficits.