Non-uniform Current Density Research Articles

Effects of Contact Loss at Electrolyte/Negative Electrode Interface on Current Density Distribution in Solid-State Batteries

Cyclic volume changes and non-uniform electrodeposition/stripping, among other cycling-induced chemo-mechanical degradation of lithium metal and lithium-alloy solid state batteries, lead to contact loss between the anode and the solid electrolyte separator. Operando experiments have shown accelerated short-circuiting behavior due to contact loss in “anode-free” solid-state batteries. Simulations have shown the relationship between active area fraction and the ratio of effective conductivities in regular-shape active area configurations. Through modeling experiments using imputed active contact area of lithium-metal negative electrode batteries, we quantify the effects of this contact loss. Specifically, we (1) quantify the interfacial resistance due to this contact loss, (2) show non-uniform local current density distribution such that evaluation of what area fraction has current exceeding critical current densities is possible, and (3) show non-uniform reaction distribution at the positive electrode. This work sheds light on the tradeoffs in the design of solid state batteries within the context of contact loss.

AA5754 aluminium alloy springback reduction by post forming electro plastic effect (PFEPE)

Post Forming Electro Plastic Effect (PFEPE) has been proposed as a promising technology for mitigating forming forces and addressing springback challenges in the metal forming industry. However, several research gaps remain unaddressed for the industrialization of this technology. Firstly, there is a lack of experimental validation regarding the impact of stress reduction on springback. Secondly, the potential effect of the skin-effect on the current metrics of stress reduction needs to be evaluated. Additionally, a post-forming electrically assisted elastoplastic material model is necessary for further technology development in stamping processes. This study tackles these challenges by utilizing AA5754H22 as a reference material and integrating a comprehensive experimental campaign with finite element numerical models and empirical material model developments. Our findings confirm that PFEPE facilitates a significant reduction in springback, achieving approximately a 100% reduction. Although the skin-effect introduces non-uniform current flux density distribution, its impact at the macroscopic level is negligible for the studied thin samples. While the numerical results of springback fails to accurately replicate experimental results, the developed material model aligns well with experimental trends.

Design of Lithium Metal Anode and Other High-Capacity Alloy Anodes Solid-State Batteries in Context of Contact Loss between Anode and Solid Electrolyte Separator

Cyclic volume changes and non-uniform electrodeposition/stripping, among other cycling-induced chemo-mechanical degradation of lithium metal and lithium-alloy solid state batteries, lead to contact loss between the anode and the solid electrolyte separator[1, 2]. In-operando experiments have shown ac-celerated short-circuiting behavior due to contact loss in “anode-free” solid-state batteries[2]. Simulations reveal the relationship between active area fraction and the ratio of effective conductivities in made-up active area configurations[3]. Through modeling experiments using imputed active con-tact area of lithium-metal anode batteries, we quantify the effects of this contact loss in terms of accelerated chemo-mechanical degradation and de-creased rate capability. Specifically, we (1) quantify the interfacial resistance due to this contact loss, (2) show non-uniform local current density distribution such that local current densities could exceed lithium filament growth critical current densities, (3) show uniaxial stress inhomogeneity due to non-uniform reaction at the anode/separator interface, and (4) show non-uniform reaction distribution at the positive electrode.Besides allowing for the optimization of designs to minimize contact loss, our work sheds light on tradeoffs in the design of solid electrolyte separators.

Exploring an Electrochemical Batch Reactor for Nutrient Recovery from Wastewater: Continuum Modeling Analysis of Hydrodynamics and Tertiary Current Distribution

Advancing electrochemical reactors for nutrient recovery from wastewater requires an integration of continuum modeling alongside experimental investigations to appropriately capture transport effects on electrode performance. This continuum modeling approach facilitates the comprehensive evaluation and optimization of electrochemical reactor performance, especially with respect to intricate phenomena that may be challenging to observe solely through experimentation. The optimization process not only enhances the efficacy of existing batch reactors but also lays the foundation for designing and scaling up continuous electrochemical reactors for nutrient recovery [1].A key transport phenomenon in electrochemistry is hydrodynamics because flow dynamics around electrodes dictate mass transport magnitude and uniformity, thereby impacting current distribution, efficiency, and electrolytic energy consumption during electrolysis. Achieving homogeneous velocity fields while avoiding undesirable flow features is essential to prevent non-uniform potential and current density distributions along the electrodes, mitigating side reactions and ensuring the overall efficacy of the electrochemical processes [2].In this study, a two-dimensional model of an electrochemical batch reactor was developed using COMSOL Multiphysics software to investigate reactor hydrodynamics, electrochemical reactions, and mass transfer of species. Employing the finite element method, the model incorporated the k-epsilon turbulence model for hydrodynamics simulation, widely used in literature for simulating fluid flow and mixing behavior [3]. Electrochemical reactions at the cathode (oxygen reduction) were modeled using the Butler-Volmer equation, while the Tafel equation was applied at the anode (hydrogen evolution). Boundary conditions were a grounded counter electrode (anode) and a potential of -1.1 vs Ag/AgCl(sat.) applied to the working electrode (cathode). Fick's second law diffusion-convective equation was employed to model the mass transfer of species, including hydroxide and oxygen.Preliminary findings indicate that while impellers contribute to turbulence and affect local conditions around electrodes, the impact on the backside of the modeled electrodes is relatively weak (Figure 1). This observation may adversely influence mass transfer rates and electrochemical reactions, underscoring the significance of integrating these results with electrochemical reactions for a comprehensive understanding of reactor behavior. Additional results will be presented at the meeting.

The effect of the non-uniform critical current density on the magnetoelastic behavior of bulk superconductors: Case of a long cylindrical superconductor

In this paper, the effect of non-uniform critical current density on bulk superconductors is studied, the case of a long cylindrical superconductor with transport current is chose to discussed. The critical current density is distributed non-uniformly along the radius of the cylinder. Based on the Bean critical state model, the distributions of trapped magnetic flux and shielding current in the cylinder are investigated. Combined with the plane strain approach, the analytical expressions of magnetic flux pinning force and stress are obtained. The magnetostriction of the cylinder is also discussed. Results show that the non-uniform critical current density changes the distribution law of the shielding current and trapped magnetic flux in the cylinder. The increase of non-uniform parameters n leads to an obvious increase in the flux pinning force. Thus, a larger extreme value of the pinning stress is obtained, a bigger structure deformation is produced inside the superconducting cylinder. All those conclusions will provide a helpful guide for engineering application.

High entropy alloy nanoparticles decorated carbon-based electrode as interfacial Li-ion localized accelerators for anode-free lithium metal batteries

Lithium metal is deemed as the main representative of the material for next-generation energy storage cells. Nevertheless, the problems of lithium dendrite growth and anode electrode volume expansion have become difficult problems in practical applications. Here, we introduced lithophilic CuInNiSnCd HEA-NPs on the surface of three-dimensional (3D) carbon hosts through a high-temperature redox strategy (HEA/CF). The application of the HEA/CF 3D framework can effectively decrease the non-uniform current density of the anode electrode, thereby slowing down the volume expansion of lithium metal during cycling. The introduction of CuInNiSnCd HEA-NPs improves the lithophilic of the carbon substrate and reduces the nucleation potential of lithium. Meanwhile, their evolution process was monitored in situ by the dynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (DEIS) with relaxation time (DRT) distribution analysis, and the introduction of the HEA was beneficial to improving Li+ migration kinetics. Consequently, the symmetric battery with Li@HEA/CF anode has an excellent cycle life of over 3000 h (10 mA cm−2/10 mAh cm−2). Furthermore, the anode-free HEA/CF assembled full cell has excellent rate performance with a stable CE of more than 99.2 % after 160 cycles at 1C. This research contributes to the use of high-entropy materials in advanced energy storage batteries and provides valuable guidance for enhancing the performance of lithium batteries.

Effect of pulse current density on creep ageing behavior of 2195 Al-Li alloy

Electrical pulse-assisted creep ageing forming can effectively improve the mechanical properties and forming efficiency of large aluminum components. However, it is difficult to achieve uniform and consistent current density at different positions in complex components. Thus, the creep behavior, mechanical properties, and microstructure evolution of 2195 Al-Li alloy under three pulse current densities (0A/mm2, 3A/mm2 and 8A/mm2) was systematically studied. The experimental results showed that the creep deformation increases with increasing current density during the 1st hour stage of electric pulse-assisted creep ageing process. However, the total creep strain of 8 h shows a trend of decreasing and then increasing. Low density pulsed currents (non-thermal effect) can promote the precipitation of the T1 phases and θ′ phases, and narrow the precipitates free zone compared to conventional creep aged sample (0A/mm2). High density (Both of non-thermal effect and Joule heating effect) pulsed currents can promote the precipitation of T1 phases, inhibit θ′ phases and form the precipitated phase penetrate the grain boundaries. A gratifying finding is that an increase in current density accelerates the aging hardening process, but the peak strength after creep ageing is the same for different current densities. This indicates that high pulse current density can improve creep ageing forming efficiency and ageing hardening process, and can use non-uniform current densities to solve the problem of significant differences in overall structural component formability while maintaining final performance consistency.

Influence of the Skin and Proximity Effects on the Thermal Field in Flat and Trefoil Three-Phase Systems with Round Conductors

The passage of current generates heat and increases the temperature of electrical components, which affects the environment, support insulators and contacts. Knowledge of the temperature allows for the determination of important operational parameters. Time-varying currents result in a nonuniform current density distribution due to the skin and proximity effects. As a result, temperature and energy losses are increased compared to the uniform DC current density case. In this paper, these effects are considered for three-phase systems with round conductors in flat and trefoil arrangements. In the first step, the analytical expressions for current distributions are determined and used to construct the heat source density. Then, a suitable Green’s function, which allows for obtaining temperature distribution in analytical form, is used to evaluate temperature at any point throughout the conductors. The temperature differences throughout individual wires are usually negligible, whereas noticeable differences can be observed between the wires. The impact of various parameters is examined, and an approximate closed formula is derived to assess the influence of the skin and proximity effects. When the skin depth is not smaller than the wire radius, the skin effect enlarges the temperature increase by around 2% compared to the DC case. As for the proximity effect, the additional increase can be neglected if the distance is above around 10 wire radii, but for closely spaced wires, it can reach up to around 17%, depending on the arrangement and the distance between the wires. Such an additional increase may result in exceeding the permissible temperatures, which damages particular components of the system; therefore, it is important to take it into account at the design stage.

Numerical investigation of parameter distributions in high-temperature PEMFCs under various cooling surface temperature gradients

Non-uniform current density distribution can lead to localized hotspots, resulting in shortened lifespans of fuel cells. The temperature distributions on the bipolar plate cooling surface significantly influence various parameters within a fuel cell. This study develops a mathematical model for a high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) to simulate its operation in four different directions of temperature gradient on the cooling surface. The distributions of membrane temperature, proton conductivity, oxygen concentration, activation loss, and current density were obtained to clarify the interaction mechanism between cooling surface temperature and these parameters in fuel cell. The results show that the membrane temperature and proton conductivity increase and the oxygen concentrations decrease with increasing cooling surface temperature. A lower temperature in the catalyst layer regions leads to a decrease in the current density. In particular, when the cooling surface temperature distribution is characterized by a temperature decrease in the upstream area with a high reactant concentration and an increase in the downstream area with a low reactant concentration, the fuel cell has an excellent current density uniformity, which reaches 92.61 % at a voltage of 0.6 V and a cooling surface temperature difference of 10 K.

Design of nanostructure in solid electrolyte interphase for enhancing the mechanical durability of lithium metal anode by deep-learning approach

Lithium metal anode (LMA) encounters significant safety challenges due to the growth of Li dendrites. The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) plays a crucial role in inhibiting dendrites growth. SEI shows a nanostructure consisting of embedded crystalline particles (CP), and the distribution of these CP strongly impacts the mechanical durability and thus Li dendrites growth. Therefore, establishing a correlation between the nanostructure of the SEI and its mechanical durability is essential to design a SEI with optimized security properties. Herein, we present a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) that has been trained on a high-throughput Finite-Elements Method (FEM) dataset based on the experimentally observed Cryo-TEM image. The CNN model can accurately predict the mechanical failure time (FT) of SEI structures. Furthermore, we employ the Reverse Monte Carlo (RMC) method coupled with CNN model to explore the structures with longer FT, ultimately identifying an optimized structure with uniform arrangement CP. Additionally, Ablation-Classification Activate Map (Ablation-CAM) technique highlights the critical role of CP distribution in failure, as clustering CP can lead to nonuniform current density and uneven Li plating. This work provides design strategies and insights into the failure mechanisms for SEI, offering a potential solution to address the safety concerns of LMA.

Computing the Non-Uniform Current Effects on the Magnetic Field in Sector Coil Dipoles

In this study, we extend the previous ‘Segmentation method’, which was originally suggested to calculate harmonic coefficients of solenoid magnets, to apply to high temperature superconductor (HTS) accelerator dipole magnets. The key idea of the segmentation method is to divide the current flowing domain into several segments to find its equivalent loop currents, by whose magnetic fields or corresponding field quality can be analytically calculated. This paper formulates an equation to calculate the multipole coefficients by segmented loop currents which represents the current densities of a sector-coil dipole magnet. The extended segmentation method is validated by comparison with analytic and inverse method through the multipole coefficient calculation. Second, the segmentation method is applied on an example model of a dipole magnet whose non-uniform current densities which are calculated by using the H-formulation based finite element method. The multipole coefficient calculation results and magnetic field are compared between the uniform and non-uniform current density using the segmentation method. Finally, a case study of extending the obtained 2D current density profile to 3D space is conducted with several assumptions.

Investigation on nonuniform current density and shape deformation affecting the magnetic field performance of a saddle-shaped no-insulation HTS cosine–theta dipole magnet

High magnetic fields are desirable for discovering new particles in particle accelerators. Dipole magnets using superconductors have played a key role in creating the required field intensity and uniformity. In contrast, high temperature superconductor (HTS) dipole magnets have recently been spotlit because of their ability to generate higher magnetic fields compared to their low temperature superconductor counterpart. Similar needs have emerged in other fields using magnets, and no-insulation (NI) technology is considered a feasible option to reach high magnetic fields by overcoming the disadvantages of HTS magnets. However, research has rarely been carried out on the utilization of NI HTS magnet technology for dipole magnets in high-field accelerators. Here we show the design, fabrication, and test results of an NI HTS dipole magnet with numerical analysis results. This paper aims to investigate the effect of nonuniform current density and undesirable shape deformation on the magnetic field distribution of a saddle-shaped NI HTS dipole magnet. The magnet is designed and constructed considering the ‘constant perimeter winding’ technique and tested in liquid nitrogen. The field mapping process is also performed along a designated mapping trajectory to obtain the magnetic field distribution. A T-A formulation-based simulation model, named the ‘sequential simulation model,’ is suggested to reproduce the measurements and employed considering the current distribution and shape deformation. As a result of quantitative analysis of the transverse direction measurements, the magnetic field error decreased by 0.02 percent point (pp) when the nonuniform current density is considered. It decreased by 0.13 pp when the shape deformation is considered. Moreover, the critical current calculated through an additional numerical analysis shows an error of up to 10%. In conclusion, the saddle-shaped NI HTS dipole magnet can produce a sufficient magnetic field level for particle accelerator research, even though the field distribution shows a uniformity of 0.37% within this study.

A numerical method to calculate screening current-dependent self and mutual inductances of REBCO coils

The screening current and its relaxation cause the variation of the self- and mutual inductances of REBCO coils—REBCO is one of the high-temperature superconductors. However, most studies of coil voltage analysis on a REBCO magnet, a stack of coils, have reported simulation results assuming invariant self- and mutual inductances so far. Although the conventional assumption of invariant inductances is still acceptable for fundamental coil voltage analyses, it can cause misleading conclusions due to inductive voltage errors when a precise coil voltage analysis is demanded. Hence, here we report a numerical method to calculate screening-current-dependent self- and mutual inductances of REBCO coils for advanced studies based on a lumped-circuit analysis model. In this work, we aim to investigate the inductance variation due to the screening current with a case study and discuss its effects on the coil voltage. We assume that there is a stack of 12 REBCO single-pancake coils. No transverse current in each coil is considered for simplicity. A numerical simulation of the current density in the magnet is performed, and then the inductances are calculated by considering the spatially non-uniform current density due to the screening current. From this case study, we confirm that the self- and mutual inductances are changed by up to 110% and 30% each. It is also confirmed that the discrepancy is notable at the beginning of the charge while marginal at the end. Finally, we discuss the effect of inductance variation on the quench voltage analysis.

Corrosion of Passive Aluminum Anodes in a Chloroaluminate Deep Eutectic Solvent for Secondary Batteries: The Bad, the Good, and the Ugly.

The passivity of aluminum is detrimental to its performance as an anode in batteries. Soaking of native oxide-covered aluminum in a chloroaluminate deep eutectic solvent gradually activates the electrode surface, which is reflected in a continuously decreasing open circuit potential. The underlying processes were studied by analyzing the 3 to 7 nm thick layer of native oxide after increasing periods of soaking with secondary neutral mass spectrometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy in a transmission electron microscope. They consistently show permeation of electrolyte species into the layer associated with gradual swelling. After extended periods of soaking at open circuit potentials, local deposits of a range of foreign metals have been found in scanning electron microscopy images of the electrode surface. The pitting corrosion is caused by trace metal ion impurities present in the electrolyte and results in highly nonuniform current density distribution during discharge/charge cycling of battery cells as shown by local deposits of aluminum. The processes during soaking at open circuit potentials have been monitored by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and could be analyzed by fitting an equivalent circuit model for pitting corrosion.

Study of Beam–Wave Interaction in a Sub-THz Traveling Wave Tube with a Converging Sheet Electron Beam Focused by a Uniform Magnetic Field

A traveling-wave tube (TWT) with a sheet electron beam and staggered double-grating slow-wave structure (SWS) is a promising high-power, wideband terahertz amplifier. In such tubes, electron-optical systems (EOSs) with a converging sheet beam are mostly used, which allow a reduction of the cathode load, increase the lifetime, and enable operation in a continuous-wave (CW) mode. This paper presents the results of a 3D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of the 0.22 THz TWT driven with a converged sheet beam, which is compressed to less than 100 μm thickness in the EOS with a magnetically shielded cathode. The beam with high compression has a significant transversal velocity spread and essentially non-uniform current density distribution over the cross-section. These factors significantly affect the beam–wave interaction. We compare the performance of the TWT driven by the compressed sheet beam and by an idealized initially rectilinear beam without any velocity spread.

Development of a Quantitative and Predictive Model for Electrodeposition of Metals and Alloys with Experimental Verifications

Electrodeposition is widely used in the refinery, manufacture, and coating of metals and alloys. Electrodeposition is a complicated process with many factors, such as deposition potential, current density, electrolyte composition and concentration, convection, additives, and temperature, can have significant impacts on the phase composition, morphology, and particle size of the deposited metals/alloys, thus consequentially impacting the physical and chemical properties of the deposited parts. In the past, a recipe for a particular metal/alloy electrodeposition is commonly established through trial-and-error tests, which is very time consuming. Here we report our recent efforts trying to build a quantitative and predictive model based on ex situ and in situ experimental characterizations of electrodeposition processes.To build the model, we chose copper as the model material for electrodeposition. A few electrochemical cells which have different geometries and dimensions and provide non-uniform current density distributions were designed and used. Through variation of the electrode placement and cell geometry, the current density distribution on the working electrode in the electrodeposition process can be tuned. The amount and growth rate of the deposited Cu layer in various electrochemical cells and under different deposition conditions (such as different potential, electrolyte concentration or physical location) were experimentally measured with using carefully calibrated and normalized X-ray diffraction (XRD) data. A multi-physics multi-scale model was developed to quantify the distribution of the current density and the growth rate of deposited Cu at different locations. The experimentally measured data was used to verify and improve the model. The results showed that the model can accurately predict the distribution of the current density with given nominal deposition potential or current, and thus predict the growth rate of the deposited Cu phase.The success of this model offers hopes to rationally design the deposition of metals and alloys to replace conventional trial-and-error method. The impact of different deposition substrates, additives, electrolyte concentrations will also be discussed. Proof-of-concept experiments also demonstrated that this rational design method can be applied to the design of electrodeposition of alloys, offering a much broader range of potential applications.

Design Study of a High-Permeability Core-Based Ultra-Compact Tesla Transformer

A compact Tesla transformer has been designed and developed using analytical calculations and simulations. Unlike conventional Tesla transformers, this transformer employs a high-permeability core to enhance the coupling and facilitate the use of semiconductor switches to increase the pulse repetition rate. In order to achieve compactness, the core of the transformer has been designed in such a way to work as a pulse-forming line (PFL) also. The effect of insulating materials like transformer oil and SF6 on the pulse rise time and pulse duration of the PFL has been studied. A fair comparative study between a discrete transformer without the metal enclosure and when encapsulated inside a PFL has also been carried out. A comprehensive study based on simulation is also presented to visualize the nonuniform current density of the primary coil. The designed transformer is capable of delivering a 140-kV voltage pulse of duration (FWHM) 10 ns on a 60- <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\Omega $ </tex-math></inline-formula> load for an input voltage of 700 V. The experimental results were compared with the analytical and simulation modeling results and a good agreement has been demonstrated.

AC corrosion analysis of the buffer layer in HV corrugated-aluminum sheathed power cables

Here we examine the AC corrosion characteristics of the buffer layer in high voltage corrugated-aluminum sheathed power cables, and analyze the relationship between corrosion and cable failure. Penetration of moisture into the buffer layer, including dampness introduced during manufacture and direct water entry through mechanical damage to the cable sheath, results in AC corrosion and formation of hydrogen and Al(OH)3. On the basis of AC current density spectroscopy, the influences of voltage, moisture content, and pressure on the threshold current density are investigated. The cable structure is considered, and a relationship between the AC corrosion and cable failure is determined. A large ripple depth of the corrugated aluminum promotes a non-uniform circular current distribution. The combination of high moisture content and non-uniform current density results in local high temperatures in the buffer layer that ultimately cause the failure of the power cables.

Analysis of light – current characteristics of high-power semiconductor lasers (1060 nm) in a steady-state 2D model

This paper presents a 2D model of a high-power semiconductor laser, which takes into account carrier transport across the layers of its heterostructure and longitudinal spatial hole burning (LSHB), an effect related to the nonuniform gain distribution along the cavity axis. We show that the use of the 2D model which takes into account carrier transport across the layers of the heterostructure allows an appreciable contribution of LSHB to saturation of light – current characteristics to be demonstrated. The LSHB effect, causing a decrease in the output optical power of semiconductor lasers, is shown to be stronger at high drive currents and low output mirror reflectivities. In the case of high drive currents, the LSHB-induced drop in power is related to the faster growth of internal optical and recombination losses because of the nonuniform current density distribution along the cavity axis, such that the highest current density can be almost twice the lowest one. LSHB is shown to increase the power stored in a Fabry – Perot cavity, which is an additional mechanism reducing the output optical power.

Unraveling the mechanism of non-uniform zinc deposition in rechargeable zinc-based batteries with vertical orientation

• The non-uniform zinc deposition in the vertical direction is investigated. • Optical observations and stripping/platting model are combined in this work. • The non-uniform deposited zinc is started by nucleation site fracture. • The inhomogeneity is exacerbated by the non-uniform current and hydrogen evolution. Secondary zinc-based batteries demonstrate a bright prospect as a candidate for next-generation electrochemical energy storage devices. However, the inhomogeneous zinc deposition with vertical orientation during electrochemical stripping/platting cycles leads to battery failure quickly and thereby limits commercial applications of zinc-based batteries. In this work, the deposited electrochemical reaction is deeply investigated and the mechanism of inhomogeneous electrochemical deposition is proposed via in-situ optical observation and numerical analysis. During the deposited reaction, zinc atoms prefer to deposit on the nucleation sites on the electrode surface, changing the morphology of nucleation sites and leading to possible fractures. The fractural zinc fragments then accumulate at the bottom and connect to the bulk electrode, which initiate the inhomogeneous distribution in the vertical direction where the protrusion appears at the bottom, and the middle and top parts have rare deposited zinc. The inhomogeneity is exacerbated during stripping/platting reaction cycles due to the non-uniform local current density distribution on the emerging protrusion. Besides, the generated bubbles caused by hydrogen evolution exacerbate the inhomogeneous distribution via changing the ion distribution. Based on the conclusions, a uniform deposition behavior is achieved via modulating the ion distribution by the flowing electrolyte as a demonstration. The unraveled mechanisms can serve as a reference for the design of advanced zinc-based batteries with stable electrodes.