Harvesting Of Non-timber Forest Products Research Articles

Managing mistletoes: The value of local practices for a non-timber forest resource

Sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and associated livelihood security can be affected by forest disturbances additional to harvesting. Amla ( Phyllanthus emblica and Phyllanthus indofischeri) is a locally and nationally significant NTFP in India, exploited for its fruit. We examined the infection of these two species by a hemiparasitic mistletoe and investigated two alternative management approaches. Forest surveys, mistletoe removal experiments and seed deposition surveys were employed to assess the prevalence of mistletoe infection, characteristics of infection in relation to resource value and the appropriateness of local versus institutional management approaches. The results suggest mistletoe infection is widespread in the study site, affecting over half of the Amla population, and in particular those reproductive trees important for population persistence. Infection characteristics and resource values differ between the two Phyllanthus species, having significant implications for Amla collectors. Institutional perspectives on the management of this species conflict with local practice. Cutting of branches by collectors has previously been considered destructive, but may in fact have management benefits in terms of increased productivity through re-sprouts and reduced risk of mistletoe infection. However, neither mistletoe removal by hand, nor branch cutting appear to offer a viable control strategy in isolation. A multifarious strategy including new approaches to management is needed to safeguard the role of this resource in local livelihoods.

Regional Variation in Non-Timber Forest Product Harvest Strategies, Trade, and Ecological Impacts: the Case of Black Dammar (Canarium strictum Roxb.) Use and Conservation in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India

Varghese, A., and T. Ticktin. 2008. Regional variation in non-timber forest product harvest strategies, trade, and ecological impacts: the case of black dammar (Canarium strictum roxb.) use and conservation in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India. Ecology and Society 13(2): 11. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02555-130211

Conservation, commercialisation and confusion: harvesting of Ischyrolepis in a coastal forest, South Africa

Harvesting of non-timber forest products is an integral component of rural livelihoods throughout the developing world. At times this is at odds with conservation objectives. Reconciliation of the two requires examination of local level contexts and needs. This paper reports on the harvesting needs for Ischyrolepis by a rural community in South Africa, against the setting that they had recently been prohibited from harvesting by the local conservation officials. Interviews were conducted with conservation officials to understand the reasoning for the prohibition. Local demand for Ischyrolepis was assessed by household surveys, as well as in-depth interviews with traders. The density and size class distribution of Ischyrolepis was determined using transects. The total annual demand for Ischyrolepis was determined to be approximately only 2.7% of the standing crop. The bulk of the annual demand was for small-scale trade, the income from which was a primary source of income for the few harvesters. Very little evidence could be found indicating that harvesting was damaging the resource or its habitat, and local knowledge suggested that the abundance of the species was stimulated by harvesting. Even if market demand were to increase, the size of the shoots required means that less than 20% of the standing crop could be harvested annually. Current regulations around harvesting are in a state of revision, and hence confusion prevails regarding if harvesting is permissible, and if so, under what conditions, which is detrimental to both conservation and livelihoods.

Nontimber forest products and biodiversity management in the Pacific Northwest

Nontimber forest product harvesting in the Pacific Northwest is neither a new activity nor a disappearing relic of the pre-industrial era. Though the emphasis may have shifted from subsistence to commercial and recreational pursuits, harvesting and harvesters of wild species are still widespread throughout the region. Hundreds of businesses and thousands of harvesters earn part or all of their income from the harvests. Every year thousands of pounds and hundreds of nontimber forest products valued in the hundreds of millions of dollars are harvested from regional public and private forests. This harvesting of a large diversity of species represents a considerable subset of the overall terrestrial biodiversity in Pacific Northwest forests. Despite widespread extraction, little investment in research, planning, or basic inventorying and monitoring has been done on nontimber forest products. Without better information, land managers will be increasingly unable to make informed decisions on how to manage nontimber forest product biodiversity sustainably as demand for products increases.

TESTING SUSTAINABILITY BY PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSES: EVALUATION FOR PALM LEAF HARVEST

Harvesting nontimber forest products (NTFPs) is a major economic activity in tropical forests. As many NTFPs are overexploited, sustainability analyses are required to set harvest guidelines. Here we introduce and apply a new approach to evaluating sustainability, which combines prospective (elasticity) and retrospective (Life Table Response Experiments [LTRE]) demographic analyses of matrix population models. We relate the elasticity of vital rates (representing their importance for population growth rate, lamda) to their contribution to harvest-induced change in lamda ("LTRE contribution"). When high-elasticity vital rates have a low LTRE contribution, exploitation is potentially sustainable as negative effects for population growth are buffered. If the reverse is found, there is little scope for sustainability because crucial vital rates are affected. Our approach is less sensitive to chance fluctuations than the commonly used sustainability criterion of lamda = 1.0, as it does not depend on the absolute value of lamda. We applied this analysis to Geonoma deversa, a clustered forest understory palm. We studied three experimentally defoliated and control populations in a Bolivian rainforest during two years. Cutting all leaves of large ramets did not change mortality but strongly affected growth and reproduction. In spite of severe changes in some vital rates, population growth rate was not significantly reduced after defoliation. A literature review revealed that six other understory palms species responded very similarly to defoliation. The combination of LTRE contributions and elasticity analyses showed that low-elasticity vital rates were mainly responsible for the defoliation-induced change in lamda for Geonoma deversa. For two other understory palms (Astrocaryum mexicanum and Chamaedorea radicalis) new demographic analyses yielded very similar results. For Geonoma, the LTRE contribution-elasticity relation strongly changed when we mimicked harvest damage. Adding 5% mortality to defoliated palms caused stronger change in lamda, mainly due to changes in a high-elasticity vital rate (survival). Therefore, harvest practices that involve stem killing are clearly unsustainable. Our results show that commercial leaf cutting in Geonoma deversa is potentially sustainable, and that this is likely the case for understory palms in general. Our approach to evaluating harvest sustainability can be applied to other NTFPs.

Natural resource accounting for Indian states — Illustrating the case of forest resources

Abstract Our main objective is to set out and apply a SEEA-based methodology to reflect the true value of forest resources in India's national and state accounts. We establish that a “top-down” approach using available national databases is both feasible and desirable from a policy perspective. In this paper, we address four components of value creation in forests: timber production, carbon storage, fuelwood usage, and the harvesting of non-timber forest products. The results of our analysis suggest that prevailing measures of national income in India underestimate the contribution of forests to income. The income accounts of the Northeastern states in particular are significantly understated by these traditional (GDP/GSDP) measures. We are also able to identify some states which performed poorly in the context of our sustainability framework, reflecting natural capital losses due to degradation and deforestation. Our results highlight the need to integrate natural resource accounting into the national accounting framework in order to generate appropriate signals for sustainable forest management and for the conservation of forest resources which are widely used by the poor in India, as well as being significant stores of national wealth.

Harvesting of non-timber forest products and implications for conservation in two montane forests of East Africa

Plant species-level research that comprises inventories, impact studies and monitoring is necessary if plant resources are to be harvested sustainably by human populations living adjacent to protected areas in sub-Saharan Africa. This research assessed the extraction of plant products from two montane forest ecosystems, Uzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (USFR) and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), East Africa. In USFR, data from vegetation sampling and interviews with local people were used to understand the ecological and socio-economic aspects of non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting. The densities of eight commonly harvested tree species, most of which were used as building poles, were approximately 2.4–4.5 times lower in disturbed versus undisturbed habitats across all four sites in USFR. Interviews with 91 women and 54 men suggested that most species were harvested for medicinal uses (57 species) and building purposes (50 species). In BINP, the liana Loeseneriella apocynoides (Apocynaceae), is harvested for basketry weaving. Evidence suggested that the liana was harvested in both protected and unprotected areas of BINP. Data collected suggested a negative impact on this species in an unprotected versus a protected area, with stem diameters larger than 1 cm significantly more abundant in the protected area. This study reveals that harvesting of NTFPs occurs even in these two protected forest areas, and that over-exploitation not only threatens species of high-demand, but could also alter forest structure and composition. Management practices that encourage the monitoring of sustainable harvesting levels of species and promote alternative plants for the same uses should be considered as part of conservation strategies.

Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests: effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) represent culturally and economically important resources for millions of people worldwide. Although many NTFP are harvested from disturbed habitats and therefore subject to multiple pressures, few quantitative studies have addressed this issue. Similarly few NTFP studies have assessed seasonal variation in demographic rates even though this can confound harvest effects. In Hawaiȁ8i, the wild-gathered ferns, Microlepia strigosa and Sphenomeris chinensis, represent highly important cultural resources but declining populations have led to conservation concerns. Both ferns are harvested from disturbed, alien-dominated forests and contemporary Hawaiian gathering practices often consist of harvest and concurrent weeding of alien invasive species. We assessed the effects of concurrent frond-harvest and alien species weeding on frond structure, density, and rates of production by comparing experimentally harvested vs. control plots, and documented relationships between frond demographic patterns and precipitation. Gathering practices had no impact on frond density of either species or on most other demographic parameters over the short term. Exceptions included a significant decrease in the density of the longest S. chinensis fronds and a significant decrease in M. strigosa frond production when fronds were gathered without alien weeding. However, seasonal and annual changes in frond density and production occurred across all plots of both species and were significantly correlated with precipitation. The relatively low harvest effects for both species are likely due to several factors including short frond longevity and the strict criteria used by gatherers to select harvestable fronds. The potential for sustainable harvest in the context of alien-dominated forests is discussed.

Estimating the demand for non-timber forest products among rural communities: a case study from the Sinharaja Rain Forest region, Sri Lanka

Lack of adequate knowledge on forest-people interaction is an important reason for the failure of many conservation policies. This study focuses on the behavior of peripheral communities towards non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting by estimating the demand functions for NTFP. The paper develops a theoretical model for deriving the shadow price for NTFP using time allocation among different economic activities. Then it tests the competitive time allocation hypothesis between NTFP extraction and tea plantations, the predominant agricultural sector in the vicinity of Sinharaja rain forest. Results provide statistical evidence for the existence of competitive time allocation between tea plantations and NTFP extraction. Own-price elasticities are consistently inelastic, except for one product. As indicated by the inelastic responses, pricing policies may not be very useful in manipulating subsistence NTFP extraction. Repeating similar studies for commercial NTFPs is encouraged.

Quantifying and comparing the value of non-timber forest products in the Amazon

The use of sustainable harvest practices in the tropics is often proposed as a way to maintain the environment and address the poverty issues that dominate many tropical regions of the world. In theory, the adoption of these methods can provide win–win solutions to tropical deforestation because they address the environmental consequences of deforestation while increasing the welfare of forest inhabitants. However, there is little reliable data that can be used to test this hypothesis since many of the goods produced in sustainable systems do not have well-defined markets and are most often consumed at home. This paper examines the benefits of collecting and harvesting non-timber forest products in the tropics through various methods using household panel data collected in 1996 and 2000 in the Ouro Preto do Oeste region of Rondônia, Brazil. We estimate the use-value of land under forest, agriculture, and pasture and complement these estimations with census data and regression analysis. Our estimations reveal that households utilizing sustainable practices in the forms of agroforestry and the collection of non-timber forest products have significantly higher levels of diversification. We conclude that directing policy towards “win–win” strategies may not be desirable for reducing both poverty and deforestation in this region since we find no clear evidence that these can successfully be addressed simultaneously. Sustainable development policy should focus on increasing the value of the forest, or reducing the opportunity cost of leaving standing forest on the household lot, if sustainable production strategies are to be more attractive to households in the future.

Applying a metapopulation framework to the management and conservation of a non-timber forest species

The harvest of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) represents a significant source of income for hundreds of millions of people, and is promoted as a conservation and development strategy across the globe. Most research on NTFP management focuses on the dynamics of individuals within harvested populations, but the ways in which management may affect the dynamics of populations across a landscape and over time remain largely unexplored. Here, I use a metapopulation framework to assess the effects of management on populations of the fiber-harvested bromeliad, Aechmea magdalenae, in the Sierra Santa Marta, Mexico. Specifically, I quantify rates of colonization, extinction and growth as well as size structure of A. magdalenae populations from 1997 to 2003; and compare these variables between wild versus outplanted populations and between old-growth versus secondary forest populations. Over the 5-year study period, 42% of the 31 wild A. magdalenae populations went extinct due to anthropogenic fires and to ramet harvest for the creation of enrichment plantings. Significantly more secondary forest populations went extinct than old-growth forest populations. Sixty-two outplanted populations were created and in contrast to wild populations and despite harvest, these outplantings increased in size and none went extinct. The structure of wild populations shifted towards fewer populations with less rosettes but overall numbers and sizes of populations increased. These results illustrate the dynamic nature of A. magdalenae populations over both time and space and the ways in which the fates of populations depend on decisions made by harvesters at both the population and the landscape level. In this case, sustainable harvest of A. magdalenae does not necessarily ensure population persistence. Outplanting of A. magdelanae appears to be functioning as a very successful forest conservation strategy. Nonetheless, the conservation of at least some wild populations may be required to ensure long-term survival of this species in this region. Metapopulation approaches may provide an important compliment to demographic studies of A. magdalenae and other NTFP.

Harvest of the PalmChamaedorea radicalis, Its Effects on Leaf Production, and Implications for Sustainable Management

Abstract: Few studies have integrated local management strategies with ecological experiments to assess the harvest and management of nontimber forest products, even though nontimber forest resources are primarily managed by local communities. To understand the harvest and management of leaves from the understory palmChamaedorea radicalisMart. in the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, Mexico, we documented local management practices and used this information to conduct an experiment to examine the effect of several leaf‐harvest regimes on leaf production, length, and yield. We interviewed palm harvesters to document harvest and management strategies and collected data on the number of leaves sold by 12 harvesters over 32 months to estimate the number of leaves harvested per year in the community of Alta Cima. In January 1999, we established 10 study plots (50 palms/plot; n= 500) to conduct our harvest experiment. Plots were divided into subplots of 10 palms each, and treatments were randomly assigned to subplots. The treatments were as follows: control, 1×/year, 2×/year, and 4×/year harvest, and a modified 4×/year harvest, during which one leaf at most was removed each time. Leaf production, length, and yield were recorded through August 2001. Palm harvesting was intense, with an average of 4000 leaves harvested per collector per month. Harvest resulted in a modest increase in leaf production; however, leaves produced in the harvest treatments were significantly shorter than those in the control. This reduction in leaf length led to a 41–68% decline in yield after 2 years because many leaves produced were too short to be marketable. This response suggests that leaf harvesting is not a stable source of income for communities in El Cielo. Because we tailored our experimental treatments to approximate current harvest practices and potentially acceptable alternatives, our results were directly relevant to communities and interpretable within the local context.

Inventory of non-timber forest product plant and fungal species in the Robson Valley

Increasing interest in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has led to their greater recognition in sustainable forest management planning. This is evident in local resource management plans for the Robson Valley in east-central British Columbia, where public input shows strong support for the sustainable development of NTFPs harvesting. However, information needed to develop sustainable management guidelines for NTFPss is currently lacking. We, therefore, undertook an inventory of non-timber forest product plant and fungal species in the Robson Valley.The distribution and abundance of NTFPs plant species was determined by ecosystem types as described by the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification system used in British Columbia. Species with a relatively high abundance and commercial potential included the valuable medicinal plant Devil�s club (Oplopanax horridus), berry-producing species such as black huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum), and the edible ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris). Plants used for floral greenery that are relatively abundant in certain ecosystem types included falsebox (Paxistima myrsinites), tall Oregon-grape (Mahonia aquifolium), pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea), and conifer boughs, especially from western redcedar (Thuja plicata). We identified a number of fungal species noted for their food, medicinal, wildcrafting, industrial, or traditional uses. Among the important food mushrooms we recorded in the Robson Valley were pine mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare), hedgehog mushroom (Hydnum repandum), and black morel (Morchella elata).Several information gaps were identified. We recommend that future research focus on gathering detailed information about selected NTFPs species. Information describing habitats, growth requirements, production levels, and response to harvesting is needed to develop sustainable management strategies.

From innovation to adaptation: lessons from 20 years of the SHIFT forest management system in Sanming, China

This study follows the 20-year period of a forestry innovation—the share-holding integrated forestry tenure (SHIFT) system—its adoption, diffusion, adaptation and transformation in Sanming Prefecture, Fujian Province of the People’s Republic of China. Our research suggests that the adoption of this innovation in forest management institutions and technologies tends to follow the familiar “s” curve. However, the prevailing patterns in the social, economic, cultural, and biophysical environments that encouraged the adoption have changed overtime as it moved to an adaptive phase. The need for flexibility and resiliency in forestry strategies is necessary if the goals and objectives promised by innovation are to be sustained. SHIFT was initiated as an innovative rural development program of “private-like” forest management, where villagers became shareholders in the community forestry operation and obtained employment through a system of tenure contracts. SHIFT has proven to be an effective system for the regeneration and protection of Sanming’s forests. Changing conditions in the social, economic, cultural, and biophysical environments of Sanming have undermined the value of the shareholding system and the benefit distribution of tenure contracts. However, villager confidence in the SHIFT system remains positive as direct dividend benefits have been replaced by those accrued through the harvest of non-timber forest products and a new household tenure contract to supply individual household forest product needs.

The ecological implications of harvesting non‐timber forest products

Summary The harvest of wild non‐timber forest products (NTFP) represents an important source of income to millions of people world‐wide. Despite growing concern over the conservation of these species, as well as their potential to foster forest conservation, information on the ecological implications of harvest is available only in disparate case studies. Seventy studies that quantify the ecological effects of harvesting NTFP from plant species were reviewed, with the aims of assessing the current state of knowledge and drawing lessons that can provide guidelines for management as well as better directing future ecological research in this area. The case studies illustrated that NTFP harvest can affect ecological processes at many levels, from individual and population to community and ecosystem. However, the majority of research was focused at a population level and on a limited subset of plant parts that are harvested. Tolerance to harvest varies according to life history and the part of plant that is harvested. Moreover, the effects of harvest for any one species are mediated by variation in environmental conditions over space and time, and by human management practices. In order to withstand heavy harvest, specific management practices in addition to gathering are necessary for many NTFP species. Management practices can be carried out at different spatial scales and some are highly effective in fostering population persistence. Synthesis and applications. Substantial advances have been made towards identifying the ecological impacts of NTFP harvest. However, there is a need for longer‐term studies that focus on multiple ecological levels (ranging from genes to ecosystems), that assess the mechanisms underlying impacts and that validate current models. Researchers and forest managers need to work with local harvesters in designing and evaluating management practices that can mitigate the negative effects of harvest.

Experimental harvesting of the non-timber forest product Ischnosiphon polyphyllus in central Amazonia

The harvesting of non-timber forest products has been proposed as an alternative to timber harvesting that can increase rural income while having a reduced impact on forest structure. However, surprisingly little is known about the biological consequences of harvesting these products. We conducted a 3-year experiment in which we simulated the stem harvesting of the Amazonian plant Ischnosiphon polyphyllus, which is used by traditional and indigenous populations in the Amazon for the construction of baskets, mats, and other handicrafts used in manioc cultivation. We found that plant mortality is limited in all except the most extreme harvesting treatments. However, we also found that plants recuperate extremely slowly from experimental harvesting. These results suggest that current harvesting strategies may not be conservative enough to ensure long-term population survival.

L'aménagement des produits forestiers non ligneux et des ressources ligneuses des forêts canadiennes : besoins d'intégration et de recherche

Non timber forest products (NTFP) are emerging globally as a tool for the establishment of sustainable forest communities. They provide employment to various sectors of society, draw on local expertise and culture, and increase the outputs of forests. In recent years, NTFP have received accrued interest by the general public, governments and the private sectors of Canada. However, for the NTFP industry to enter mainstream Canadian industrial culture it is now critical to attempt the integration of the timber industry with the NTFP industry to benefit both sectors. NTFP can be harvested from four types of environment: wild stocks from timber-productive forests, wild stocks from non-timber-productive forests or lands, managed stocks from intensively managed forests, and domesticated stocks from agricultural systems. A large body of evidence suggests that NTFP management and harvest can serve the forest industry in many ways. There are four possible types of interaction between the NTFP and timber industries: independent resource use, competition for resources, complementary resource use and symbiotic resource use. Integration of both industries in a sustainable manner will need to be supported with research that address economic, social, policy and ecological questions. Key words: NTFP, sustainability, biodiversity, community forestry

Managing timber and non-timber forest product resources in Canada's forests: Needs for integration and research

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) are emerging globally as a tool for the establishment of sustainable forest communities. They provide employment to various sectors of society, draw on local expertise and culture, and increase the outputs of forests. In recent years, NTFP have received accrued interest by the general public, governments and the private sectors of Canada. However, for the NTFP industry to enter mainstream Canadian industrial culture it is now critical to attempt the integration of the timber industry with the NTFP industry to benefit both sectors. NTFP can be harvested from four types of environment: wild stocks from timber-productive forests, wild stocks from non-timber-productive forests or lands, managed stocks from intensively managed forests, and domesticated stocks from agricultural systems. A large body of evidence suggests that NTFP management and harvest can serve the forest industry in many ways. There are four possible types of interaction between the NTFP and timber industries: independent resource use, competition for resources, complementary resource use and symbiotic resource use. Integration of both industries in a sustainable manner will need to be supported with research that address economic, social, policy and ecological questions. Key words: NTFP, sustainability, biodiversity, community forestry

Nontimber forest products in the United States

A quiet revolution is taking place in America's forests. Once seen primarily as stands of timber, our woodlands are now prized as a rich source of a wide range of commodities, from wild mushrooms and maple sugar to hundreds of medicinal whose uses have only begun to be fully realized. Now as timber harvesting becomes more mechanized and requires less labor, the image of the lumber-jack is being replaced by that of the forager. This book provides the first comprehensive examination of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) in the United States, illustrating their diverse importance, describing the people who them, and outlining the steps that are being taken to ensure access to them. As the first extensive national overview of NTFP policy and management specific to the United States, it brings together research from numerous disciplines and analytical perspectives - such as economics, mycology, history, ecology, law, entomology, forestry, geography, and anthropology - in order to provide a cohesive picture of the current and potential role of NTFPs. The contributors review the state of scientific knowledge of NTFPs by offering a survey of commercial and noncommercial products, an overview of uses and users, and discussions of sustainable management issues associated with ecology, cultural traditions, forest policy, and commerce. They examine some of the major social, economic, and biological benefits of NTFPs, while also addressing the potential negative consequences of NTFP harvesting on forest ecosystems and on NTFP species populations. Within this wealth of information are rich accounts of NTFP use drawn from all parts of the American landscape - from the Pacific Northwest to the Caribbean. From honey production to a review of nontimber forest economies still active in the United States - such as the Ojibway harvest of plants recounted here - the book takes in the whole breadth of recent NTFP issues, including ecological concerns associated with the expansion of NTFP markets and NTFP tenure issues on federally managed lands. No other volume offers such a comprehensive overview of NTFPs in North America. By examining all aspects of these products, it contributes to the development of more sophisticated policy and management frameworks for not only ensuring their ongoing use but also protecting the future of our forests.

Indigenous Knowledge Informing Management of Tropical Forests: The Link between Rhythms in Plant Secondary Chemistry and Lunar Cycles

This research used knowledge of the indigenous practice of timing nontimber forest product harvest with the full moon to demonstrate that chemicals controlling the decomposition rate of foliage fluctuate with the lunar cycle and may have developed as a result of plant-herbivore interactions. Indigenous knowledge suggests that leaves harvested during the full moon are more durable. Palm leaves harvested during the full moon had higher total C, hemicellulose, complex C and lower Ca concentrations. These chemical changes should make palm leaves less susceptible to herbivory and more durable when harvested during the full moon. This study proposes a mechanism by which plants in the tropics minimize foliage herbivory and influence the decomposition rates of senesced leaves and their durability, especially during the full moon. This research supports the need to use natural life cycles in managing forests and provides a scientific basis for an indigenous community's harvesting practice.