Harvesting Of Non-timber Forest Products Research Articles

Does commercialization lead to more intensive management strategies? Decision-making for the utilization of non-timber forest products in a Nahua area of the Sierra Negra, Mexico

BackgroundThe commercialization of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) provides income for rural indigenous households. The integration of NTFPs into formal markets tends to intensify management practices to ensure production and monetary benefits. However, more research is needed to understand the motivations for managing of commercialized species. We examine the influence of social, ecological, and economic factors on traditional management and how they drive the adoption of more or less intensive practices for subsistence and commercially traded NTFPs.MethodsThe study was conducted in the Nahua community of Ixtacxochitla, in the Sierra Negra of central Mexico, where we conducted free lists and semi-structured interviews in 32% of the 88 households to assess socio-ecological variables related to management practices. In addition, we interviewed local traders to assess commercial variables used in a cost–benefit model to calculate the net annual income of commercialized species. Non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to analyze relationships between socio-ecological variables and management practices. We also explored the relationship between management and commercial factors using principal component analysis.ResultsWe recorded 64 plant and mushroom species of NTFPs used for medicinal, ornamental, ceremonial, and edible purposes, 36 of which are commercialized in the municipal market of Coyomeapan. The commercialized species generated an average annual net income of MXN 67,526 (USD 3924) per family, with five species contributing the most. Species both used for both subsistence and commercialization were managed through incipient in situ gathering, tolerance in ex situ anthropogenic areas, and intensive protection and propagation efforts in ex situ environments. Even the five species with the highest commercial returns were managed across this gradient of practices. Key factors influencing the adoption of more intensive species management practices were feasibility of management, type of species use, ecological abundance, frequency of consumption, and cultural importance.ConclusionsThe intensification of NTFPs management is not solely driven by the commercial value of the products or the level of income generated. Instead, the interaction between socio-ecological and economic factors determines the extent of management practices. The main constraint to the implementation of intensive practices has been the inability to manage species outside their natural habitats, despite their cultural significance and frequent consumption. Understanding the factors involved in the harvesting of NTFPs can serve as the basis for future research aimed at analyzing the conditions for successful and sustainable NTFPs commercialization.

Challenges for a Brazilian Amazonian bioeconomy based on forest foods

The creation of a forest bioeconomy based on the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP) is being recommended to create wealth from standing forests and halt deforestation in Amazonia. Current proposals do not recognize the limits of this system, nor the impacts of capitalism that drive NTFPs with elastic demand into monoculture plantations. We use a narrative review to revisit the history of these ideas and examine public policies. Among 2,253 Amazonian NTFPs, 1,037 produce edible fruits and 131 of these are extremely abundant (hyperdominant) across the biome and common in the extractive economy. Low productivity per hectare in the forest, low return on labor to harvest the production, and scarcity of labor are three critical limits to expanding supply, with the last being the most critical in forest areas. Overcoming these limitations requires changes in public policies and public investment for health care, communication, logistics, and especially for quality education designed for rural areas and a forest bioeconomy. A mix of public policies to alleviate market failures and increase supply, efficiency, and demand via R&D, minimum prices, payment for environmental services, distinct types of certifications may be able to make food NTFP harvesting, processing, and commercialization lucrative enough to halt rural exodus and keep forest specialists in standing forests. An Amazonian forest bioeconomy depends upon both social and biodiversity, and the full participation and collaboration of Indigenous People and local communities in developing these value chains that can contribute to food security.

Profile Characteristics of Khasi Tribal Farmers Engaging in Collection and Management of Non-Timber Forest Products in Meghalaya, India

Tribal farmers belong to indigenous communities and engage in agricultural activities, agroforestry or even non-timber forest product harvesting as their primary livelihood. These farmers are part of ethnic groups with distinct traditions, languages and social structures. Therefore, studying the profile characteristics of these farmers is essential for understanding their unique socio-economic and cultural contexts. This study was conducted on 160 tribal farmers from East Khasi Hills and Ri Bhoi district of Meghalaya, primarily engaged in the collection and management of non-timber forest products. The research, utilized an ex post facto design. Findings revealed that most respondents were young or middle aged, with diverse educational backgrounds. Housing was mainly wooden or concrete with asbestos sheets. Material possession ranged from low to medium, and family sizes were typically medium to large, with nuclear families prevailing. Social and political participation varied, while income distribution skewed towards the low to medium range. Local and regional markets were preferred by over two-thirds of respondents. Livestock ownership, landholding sizes and indebtedness patterns demonstrated diversity. Engagement with mass media, cosmopoliteness, extension contact, participation and opinion leadership varied, with many falling into low to medium categories. Awareness of development schemes was significant, indicating a connection to broader societal initiatives. Tribal farmers displayed diverse levels of scientific orientation, risk and economic motivation, market orientation, and fatalistic attitudes. These findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, researchers and development practitioners, facilitating tailored interventions to address the unique needs and aspirations of this farming community.

Rich resources from poor communities: An analysis of Namibia's access and benefit-sharing legislation

Since pre-independence, Namibia has faced wealth disparities and unfair distribution of benefits arising from natural resources. Producers, who hold traditional knowledge related to genetic resources, continue to endure poverty. In response, the Government of Namibia collaborated with various stakeholders to develop access and benefit-sharing policies and regulations. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of access and benefit-sharing legislation in distributing monetary and non-monetary benefits from users of non-timber forest products to indigenous and local communities who produce them. To achieve this, we integrated the access and benefit-sharing approaches with the value chain framework to identify gaps in the implementation of benefit-sharing. We employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating semi-structured interviews, participation in symposiums, and statistical data analysis. Our findings revealed that despite the established legislative measures aimed at improving the benefits for Namibian producers, the actual sharing of the benefits remains unsatisfactory. Only a few communities that harvest non-timber forest products had benefit-sharing agreements or joint patent ownership with global or regional industries. Moreover, the San communities, who received incentives from the Devil's Claw manufacturer in 2021, did not enter into any benefit-sharing agreements until March 2023. We suggest that the recently implemented access and benefit-sharing regulations may not fully address the benefit-sharing issues overlooked by previous policies and initiatives. Therefore, we recommend further studies in exploring the potential of establishing efficient non-timber forest product processing facilities to economically empower communities. This, will ultimately contribute to national economic growth and the achievement of sustainable development goals.

Community perceptions and attitudes towards the management of protected areas in Seychelles with Morne Seychellois National Park as case study

Designated as a protected area (PA) in 1979, the Morne Seychellois National Park (MSNP) hosts one of the three Ramsar sites in Seychelles – the Mare Aux Cochon (MAC). The park occurs partly in an area with private land ownership suffering from development pressure. Understanding community perceptions and attitudes towards the MSNP can improve the park's role in addressing climate change and biodiversity loss. This study used a stratified random sampling of 130 households to (i) determine socio-demographic factors that influence local communities' attitudes toward biodiversity conservation in the MSNP, (ii) pereceived importance of the MSNP, (iii) to assess what activities are (un)acceptable in the MAC and the rest of the park, and (iv) who has rights to access, land ownership and land-use decision making in the park. The findings indicated that the positive behavior of local communities towards biodiversity conservation is influenced by the frequency of visits and benefits derived in terms of ecosystem services at the 5% significance level. Chief among the importance of the MSNP as viewed by community members included ecotourism (93.5%), biodiversity conservation (84.6%), and environmental protection (66.7%). Respondents generally perceived that low-impact activities should occur at the MAC and the rest of the park. However, the impact from activities such as camping and picnic, hiking, and nature walks, and the harvesting of non-timber forest products, a non-tourism activity, was of greater concern in the MAC. On the other hand, high-impact activities, such as logging and infrastructural development, received over 70% disagreement in the MAC and the rest of the park. Our findings have implications for Seychelles’ land acquisition in the public interest Act 1996, which is silent about land within PAs.

A qualitative analysis of Non-Timber Forest Products activities as a strategy to promote sustainable land use in the Brazilian Cerrado

The Cerrado is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, a key hydrological area of Brazil and home to socio-culturally diverse groups. However, the expansion of agribusiness activities in the Cerrado biome has led to acute social-ecological disturbances. Deploying strategies that promote socially and ecologically sustainable land use therein is hence imperative. One such strategy encompasses the harvesting, processing and commercialization of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). This paper thus aims to uncover what interdependent social-ecological dynamics hinder and/or facilitate the consolidation of NTFP activities as a strategy to promote sustainable land use in the Cerrado and how to overcome the challenges permeating these activities. It does so by analyzing NTFP activities in Pirenópolis, Goiás, originally combining different fields of research. This research highlights social-ecological dynamics resulting in positive outcomes, such as the satisfaction of material and socio-cultural needs, the protection and planting of tree species, and a sound knowledge on the ecology and phenology of NTFPs, as well as on sustainable harvesting techniques. Notwithstanding, the results also demonstrate that power imbalances, insufficient local capacity and the agribusiness hegemony hamper NTFP activities in Pirenópolis. This paper emphasizes the urgency of addressing power asymmetries, especially considering the need for the formulation of land use policies that can tackle issues of access to land and NTFPs. This research moreover points to the importance of stronger social relations that can enhance the role of NTFP activities as a strategy to promote sustainable land use.

Contribution of Nontimber Forest Products Earn to Livelihood in Rural Households and the Type of Use: A Systematic Review

The researcher conducted a review of 83 articles published between 2011 and 2021 to determine the nontimber forest products (NTFPs) income contribution and usage types based on spatial and temporal patterns. The study used a search, synthesis, appraisal, and analysis framework for review. The review included articles that only focused on the contributions of NTFPs for livelihood income and NTFPs usage type, while others not related to these two topics were excluded. For its literature search, more than half of the articles used Google Scholar, followed by Research4life, Scopus/Elsevier, EMBASE, and PubMed, respectively. In this study, excluding papers that (i) did not provide evidence on the income contribution of NTFPs, (ii) did not include articles that did not clearly explain the NTFPs use types, and (iii) were published before 2011, the reviewer was able to reduce the number of included articles (eligibility criteria or inclusion and exclusion criteria). 83 article papers were reviewed for the current review. The majority of the research for this review was carried out in India (19%), Ethiopia (13%), and Nigeria (11%). India was the first of the 17 both Asian and African countries to do research on the NTFPs’ contribution to rural household income and type of use. NTFPs contribute significantly to rural household revenue in 17 countries, ranging from a minimum of 9.5% in Zambia to a maximum of 40.19% in Myanmar. The average percentage of revenue from NTFPs across the 17 nations was 23.56%. Wild fruit, wild vegetables, medicinal plants, firewood, and crafts were the five NTFP usage types that were used by people in every country studied. Despite the fact that different countries utilize different types of NTFPs, the most commonly used types of NTFPs do not differ statistically ( P > 0.05 ). To prevent overexploitation, those top five NTFPs must be conserved as they gather across the regions. NTFP collection is a significant source of revenue for rural poor and people who live in and around the forest. There are many types of NTFPs in both Asian and African countries. So, this study shows that the rural people depend on the forest product and get many benefits from the forest especially in the NTFP usage type. In order to secure livelihood stability in this global biodiversity hotspot and to preserve plant and animal diversity, the cultivation and scientific harvesting of NTFPs are urgently required. It is necessary to increase capacity by teaching NTFP users how, when, and how much to harvest.

Determinants of the Availability of Non-timber Forest Products for Households’ Adaptation to the Effects of Climate Variability in Iringa District, Tanzania

This cross-sectional study was conducted to examine determinants of the availability of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for household use as a strategy for adapting to the effects of climate variability in the Kitapilimwa Forest Reserve (KFR) in Iringa district, Tanzania. The study involved 400 participants. Data were collected through structured interviews, in-depth interviews, focused group discussions, field observation and documentary review. Findings reveal that local communities in the study area are vulnerable to the effects of climate variability. Also, they show that 52.4% of the respondents extracted NTFPs from the KFR as a strategy for adapting to the effects of climate variability. Besides, the study found that the main determinants of the availability and effective household use of NTFPs as an adaptation strategy are anthropogenic degradation and loss of NTFPs, the implications of KFR access by-laws, effects of climate variability on the availability of NTFPs, perception of fairness of trade in NTFPs, and seasonal availability of NTFPs. The study concludes that despite the important role of NTFPs from the KFR being used as a strategy for adapting to the effects of climate variability, there are factors that limit the availability and effective household use of NTFPs as an adaptation strategy. It is recommended that the government involve local communities in developing a policy framework that promotes a sustainable harvesting of NTFPs. Also, the government and the private sector should support all efforts to diversify livelihood sources of rural households to reduce their dependency on natural forests. Lastly, the government should monitor and regulate trade in NTFPs.

Forest Owners’ Perspectives Concerning Non-Timber Forest Products, Everyman’s Rights, and Organic Certification of Forests in Eastern Finland

Global trends towards the bioeconomy and multidimensional ecosystem-based approaches are transforming our understanding of forests and expanding access to forest management. The demand for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is increasing due to the current trends in lifestyle and consumption. Forest owners play a key role in the supply of NTFPs. However, many forest owners are not committed to production or aware of the opportunities for production of their forests. Understanding better the family forest owners’ behaviour and decision making regarding NTFPs is needed to strengthen the role of NTFPs in the Finnish bioeconomy. In this study, forest owners’ perspectives concerning NTFPs, Everyman’s Rights, and organic certification of forests were identified. The survey data were collected by emailing the questionnaire to North Karelian forest owners and analysed by creating forest owner typologies based on their forest ownership motives and perspectives concerning NTFPs. Regarding forest ownership motives, four owner groups of relatively equal size were identified and named as recreationist, conservationists, timber producers, and resigning owners leaving the forest property to the next generation. Regarding their use of NTFPs and interest in producing NTFPs four groups of owners were identified: owners who 1) harvested NTFPs for household use or 2) sale, 3) would allow the harvesting of NTFPs not covered by everyman’s right, and 4) need more information on the joint production of timber and NTFPs not covered by Everyman’s Rights. Most owners were household users. The results can be utilised to promote NTFP production and advocate for the more effective organic certification of forests for different forest owner groups.

Predicting the impacts of palm heart and fruit harvesting using Integral Projection Models

Due to the increasing human impact on natural resources, we assessed the harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFP) to verify demographic changes in populations of native palm trees. Euterpe edulis is native to the Atlantic Forest in Brazil, characterized by high deforestation and fragmentation. This palm is also targeted for palm heart and fruit harvesting. The threats posed by such factors motivated this study, as they might lead to a decrease in natural populations. The viability of sustainably harvesting the species in small fragmented areas is unknown. We performed simulations for palm heart and fruit harvesting in three small populations (entitled: SH, AJ, and ES) sampled in a 1-year interval (2010–2011) to verify whether these practices were sustainable. Different harvesting scenarios were simulated: (1) no harvesting; (2) harvesting of palm heart of reproductive individuals; (3) harvesting of palm heart of large individuals (diameter at ground level > 65 mm, including reproductive or not). and (4) fruit harvesting. Each scenario was simulated at different harvesting intensities (percentage of individuals or fruits harvested). Integral projection models were used to calculate two demographic parameters, namely, population growth rate (λ) and elasticity. In the no harvesting scenario, the populations had λ > 1 (SH = 1.0655, AJ = 1.0184, and ES = 1.0862). Palm heart harvesting proved to be sustainable in both scenarios, but at a higher intensity in scenario (2) (SH = 83%, AJ = 14%, and ES = 35%) than in scenario (3) (SH = 17%, AJ = 4%, and ES = 16%). Fruit harvesting was sustainable at any intensity for all three populations. As the survival of large individuals has a high impact on λ, palm heart harvesting was in most cases sustainable only at low intensities. In contrast, as fecundity and seedling survival have a low impact on λ, fruit harvesting still proved sustainable at high intensities. Although the populations are tolerant to harvesting to some degree, it must be conducted carefully. As populations are fragile due to the current condition of reduced population size, the removal of palms at any rate can affect population persistence and generate possible cascade effects on the forest.

Livelihood, carbon and spatiotemporal land-use land-cover change in the Yenku forest reserve of Ghana, 2000–2020

Tropical forests are important sources of securing basic human needs (livelihoods) for both the deprived and well-endowed but are also critical for reducing metric tonnes of carbon (tC) emitted from deforestation and land degradation. However, inequalities of human population and land-use land-cover change (LULCC) are existential threats to sustainable tropical forest reserve management and their aboveground biomass carbon stock (AGBCS) in Africa. This study examines the extent of LULCC, AGBCS and perception of livelihood effects on the Yenku Forest Reserve (YFR) in the Central Region of Ghana. Google Earth Engine remotely sensed Landsat data analysis using supervised classification, change detection, mixed with qualitative data from individual in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with inhabitants were used. The overall classification accuracy was 89.1%, 90.8% and 89.8% for the LULC in 2000, 2010 and 2020 respectively. Farming, charcoal production, hunting and harvesting non-timber forest products were the main livelihood activities impacting LULCC and AGBCS in the reserve. Open degraded forest was estimated at 1627ha, 1764ha, 1784ha out of 2293ha, corresponding to 36,349.6tC, 39,395.70tC, 39,840.0tC respectively in 2000, 2010 and 2020. Dense degraded forest cover yielded the least carbon stock of 938.6tC compared to 39,840.0tC from less dense degraded forest cover. These findings would aid policy decisions toward achieving United Nations land degradation neutrality and sustainable development goals (SDGs) one, ten and fifteen while ensuring YFR sustainability. Deprived forest-fringe communities, traditional authorities and other relevant stakeholders need to actively adopt gendered livelihood objectives to achieve SDGs, carbon and land degradation neutralities within YFR.

Viability of Pentadesma in reduced habitat ecosystems within two climatic regions with fruit harvesting

Habitat loss and harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) significantly affect the population dynamics. In this paper, we propose a general mathematical modelling approach incorporating the impact of habitat size reduction and non-lethal harvesting of NTFP on population dynamics. The model framework integrates experimental data of Pentadesma butyracea in Benin. This framework allows us to determine the rational non-lethal harvesting level and habitat size to ensure the stability of the plant ecosystem, and to study the impacts of distinct levels of humidity. We suggest non-lethal harvesting policies that maximize the economic benefit for local populations.

The Contribution of Community Forestry on Livelihood Improvement and Environmental Protection in Cameroon

The sustainable management of community forests in Cameroon is a success story for the achievement of Community-Based natural Resources Management (CBNRM). This approach empowers local communities to take the lead on natural resources management, giving them a sense of responsibility and ownership. This study was carried out in three community forest (Woteva, Bakingili and Bimbia-Bonadikombo community forests) in Fako Division, South West Region of Cameroon. The aim of this research was to verify the contribution of community forestry to the wellbeing of the local population, and how it enhances the conservation of biodiversity. In this study, 135 (45.8%) of the 295 respondents were from Bimbia-Bonadikombo, 109 (36.9%) from Bakingili and 51 (17.3%) from Woteva. From this total, 155 (52.5%) were female and the rest (140 or 47.5%) were male. 89.4% of the population use the forests for fuelwood collection, 25.7% for timber exploitation, 40% for farming, and 41.3% for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) harvesting. Interestingly, only 17.9% of the respondents reported an increase in community members income under community forestry, 53.9% perceived no change especially as not everyone in the community is committed to community forestry. However, an improved adoption of sustainable exploitation practices was noted, and this can be explained by the numerous sensitization and training workshops and field demonstration carried out by the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife through the Programme for the Sustainable Management of Natural Resources-Southwest (PSMNR-SW), as well as Mount Cameroon prunus africana Association (MOCAP).

Assessment of livelihood activities for conservation management in the Deng Deng National Park-Belabo Council Forest Conservation Corridor, East Region of Cameroon

Many local communities in Cameroon especially around protected areas survive through the exploitation of natural resources in the wild. This study was set out to assess the different livelihood activities carried out in communities located in the corridor between the Deng Deng National Park and the Belabo Council Forest. This assessment was a giant step towards the planning for effective conservation of biodiversity in the corridor. To achieve this, a household survey was conducted using the simple random sampling technique where each household was given equal opportunity of being chosen to take part in the survey. Surveys on hunting and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) were conducted. During these surveys a total of 440 questionnaires were administered in 11 villages. The results revealed that agriculture, hunting and the collection or harvesting of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) were the major livelihood activities carried out by the local population. Most respondents (51%) farm sizes were between 0.5 to 3 hectares and crops cultivated were; cocoyams, plantains, potatoes, cassava, groundnut and maize. A total of 69% of the population were engaged in the collection and harvesting of NTFPs such as njansang (Ricinodendron heudoloti), bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis), bitter cola (Garcinia kola), colanut (Cola nitida). A majority of respondents (97%) collected the NTFPs for consumption and sale. It was shown that 53% of the collector earned at least 100,000XAF to 200,000XAF per year. With respect to hunting, a majority of respondents (87%) hunt for sale and consumption while 11% hunt just for sale. The studied communities depend highly on the forest and this has led to loss of biodiversity through habitat loss and fragmentation. Thus, adequate conservation management strategies are very instrumental for the improvement of biodiversity and livelihood in the corridor.

Non-Timber Forest Products and Local Livelihoods Around the Bamboko Forest Reserve in the South West Region of Cameroon

The study assesses the contribution of non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in rural livelihoods and the strategies for their conservation. A survey was conducted with 150 respondents in six villages of the Bamboko Forest Reserve (BFR), using questionnaire, complemented by interviews, focus group discussions and direct field observations. The results showed that 10 key NTFPs of plant origin and 13 animal species contributed to income generation, trade, employment and household energy in communities adjoining the BFR. In 2013, these communities generated an income of US$ 6,965 and US$ 3,603.8 per month from the sale of plant based major NTFPs and ‘bush meat’ respectively, contributing to the wellbeing of families. Unsustainable harvesting of NTFPs from the BFR have resulted in 90% reduction in quantity collected, 83% decrease in income as well as a purported 91% degradation of the forest reserve. Indeed, over 90% of local population indicated significant decrease in the quantity of NTFPs harvested and the number of animals hunted per month with consequential decreases in incomes.

The prospects of community-based natural resource management in Ghana: A case study of Zukpiri community resource management area

The Community Resource Management Area (CREMA) model was adopted in Ghana in the 1990s to help conserve and increase the forest area of Ghana. Since its adoption, little is known about the prospects of the model in the scientific literature. To fill this gap, this study examined the management strategies, benefits and challenges of the Zukpiri CREMA in the Upper West Region. Mixed methods research involving a survey of 190 households, seven (7) focus group discussions and key informant interviews were employed to collect data in seven (7) CREMA communities. The study found that local communities employed several strategies including the formation of community resource management committees, enactment of bye-laws and fines regarding the management and extraction of the CREMA resources. The CREMA has positively impacted the livelihoods of the inhabitants through the harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and support from Governmental and Non-Governmental Organisations. Nonetheless, the CREMA is not without challenges. These include land tenure and the CREMA resource use conflicts. This study, therefore, argued that besides creating an enabling ecologically balanced environment, inhabitants of the CREMA communities are reaping the benefits of the CREMA in many ways. Hence, the Forestry Commission of Ghana should focus on aligning relevant livelihood strategies in line with the CREMA approach to further deepen local communities’ commitment to the conservation drive.

Socio-economic and income characteristics of Pine Sap Tappers (Pinus merkusii) in the Covid-19 pandemic situation

Through this research, we tried to examine the social and economic characteristics of harvesting non-timber forest products during the pandemic. On the other hand, this research tries to describe the socio-economic characteristics of Pinus merkusii sap tappers and the effects on their income in Cenrana Baru Village, Cenrana District, Maros Regency. Data collection process was carried out directly using interview techniques to 30 respondents who were selected by purposive sampling. Data from the interviews then processed and analyzed using descriptive analysis methods and quantitative analysis. The results of the research that have been conducted show that the socio-economic characteristics of tappers based on the results of the study are the average age of tappers is around 41-48 years which is included in the productive age, the level of education is still low with a percentage of 50% are elementary school graduates, the amount of the average family dependents included in the category of small family with the number of dependents 1-2 people, the main livelihood is as farmers, the tappers have an average 1-2 ha of tapping area, the number of tapped pine trees is at intervals of 20-32 trees with a percentage of 27%, the average age of pine is 40 years, the production of sap produced by tappers are average 176-367 kg per month with a percentage of 53% and the average income of tappers is IDR 2.523.661,27 per month where the income of tappers is still below minimum wage (City or Regency Minimum Wage/UMK) of Maros Regency 2019 that is IDR 3.100.000,00. The socio-economic characteristics are thought to have an effect on tappers’ income are age, family dependence, type of work, land ownership, working hours, number of trees, age of pine and sap production. Pine sap production has a significant positive effect at the 99% confidence level and land area has a significant effect on total household income at the 95% confidence level.

Bark harvesting by human population shapes tree allometry in an economically important species of the Brazilian savanna

Theoretical models of allometric scaling provide an important framework for understanding and predicting how and why the morphology and function of organisms vary with scale. However, the predictions of ‘universal’ scaling models for vascular plants do not consider different environments and disturbance types which can reduce the predictive power of these models. One important source of disturbance in tropical regions is the harvesting of non-timber forest products, such as leaves, flowers, resins and barks. In this context, we examine the influence of bark harvesting and different light environments on scaling of the height and diameter of Himatanthus drasticus (Apocynaceae), an economically important tree species harvested by several local communities living in the Brazilian savanna. By considering this species as a model system and using Bayesian regression, we show that bark harvesting modifies tree allometry and that the empirical scaling exponents diverge from the theoretical predictions. In addition, the results of a mechanistic model of tree growth revealed that bark harvesting affects tree height and that this effect varies independently of the light environment. On the other hand, trees with higher bark harvesting levels presented lower height growth rates when compared to trees without bark harvesting or those with<50% of bark harvesting. Our results highlight the importance of including bark harvesting as a source of disturbance that can cause differences between the observed scaling relationships and those predicted by theoretical models. Finally, from the management perspective, we observed that high levels of bark harvesting could compromise the plant height growth of the debarked trees. Therefore, our recommendation for the management of this species is that the previously defined limits of 50% of bark harvesting should be maintained to avoid the negative effects of harvesting on the tree height over time.

Forest power: The impact of community forest management on female empowerment

Community forest management (CFM) systems have been implemented in developing countries as forest conservation initiatives with community development objectives. Women are often active in CFM by participating in non-timber forest product harvesting and management. Given the increasing presence of women in CFM, this study assesses whether participating in community forest management gives females more household decision-making power, a proxy for empowerment. This is a relevant issue because many development policies are implemented with female empowerment objectives, yet no existing rigorous quantitative studies have examined whether women's participation in CFM empowers them. Using an ordered logistic regression and an instrumental variable method, we analyze a household-level survey of forest-dwelling residents living in the Maya Biosphere Reserve in northern Guatemala. We find that female's participation in CFM increases her intra-household bargaining power on average. The results demonstrate that CFM systems can have development benefits that extend beyond increased household income and welfare.

Producers, production, marketing, and sales of non-timber forest products in the United States: a review and synthesis

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are derived from natural populations of plants or fungi, or farmed in forests. Harvesters and producers often benefit from NTFPs by selling them to generate income. This article explores research on the producers, production, marketing, and sales of NTFPs in the United States, including the continuum of production from wild-harvesting to forest farming of NTFPs, and their costs and benefits. Specific examples are presented, but the concepts and generalizations are broadly applicable to many NTFPs throughout the U.S. and other parts of the world. Integrating NTFPs into forest management can enhance economic opportunities but also will increase complexity, and will entail balancing multiple and potentially conflicting objectives among a diverse community of stakeholders. We identify information gaps including the need for inventories and yield models of NTFPs, understanding the effect of silvicultural activities on NTFP survival and yield, time series and trends in collection of NTFPs by U.S. households, identification of vulnerable and marginalized communities associated with NTFP harvest, and harvesters’ motivations and drivers.