Non-stimulant Drug Research Articles

Viloxazine: A New Non-Stimulant Treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)


 IntroductionViloxazine is an antidepressant medication classified as an SNRI (serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor). In April 2021, it received FDA approval in the United States for the treatment of ADHD in children aged 6 to 17. Subsequently, in May 2022, it was also approved for the treatment of adults with ADHD [1]. Viloxazine, available in extended-release capsules, represents novel non-stimulant medication option for patients with ADHD.Aim of the studyOur aim was to review the viloxazine in the fields of ADHD treatment, summarize current knowledge and analyze the first treatment results.
 
 
 Methods and materialsA review of the literature available in the PubMed database was performed, using the key words: „Viloxazine" ; „ADHD treatment" ; „ADHD”, „attention deficit hyperactivity disorder”, „attention deficit hyperactivity disorder treatment”; „ADHD non-stimulant treatment”; „ADHD non-stimulant”; „ADHD non-stimulant drugs”, „SPN-812”
 
 
 ConclusionViloxazine presents a promising non-stimulant alternative for ADHD treatment with more favorable pharmacokinetics, new way of possible administration and fewer adverse effects, particularly within the cardiovascular system, than other available ADHD medication options. While these findings are encouraging, continual research is imperative to establish the long-term safety profile.

Atomoxetine promotes incentive value of modafinil and sensitizes exploratory behavior

Substance dependence is a disorder that alters the functioning of the nervous system due to frequent abuse of drugs. The role of dopamine in the addictive effect of psychostimulants is well known; however, the involvement of the noradrenergic system is still unclear and poorly understood, though drugs like cocaine and amphetamines are known to exert significant activity on this system. The drug modafinil (MOD) has no proven addictive effect. It promotes wakefulness by acting mainly on the dopaminergic system and, to a lesser degree, the noradrenergic (NOR) system. Atomoxetine (ATX) is a non-stimulant drug that acts only on the NOR system, enhancing its activity. The aims of the present study were to analyze the effect of co-activating the DA and NOR systems (with MOD and ATX, respectively) on motor activity and exploratory behavior, and to examine the possible emergence of rewarding properties of MOD and an MOD+ATX mixture. Male Wistar rats at postnatal day 60 were treated chronically (16 days) with either monotherapy with 2ATX, 4ATX, or 60MOD mg/kg, two combinations of these substances –60MOD + 2ATX and 60MOD + 4ATX– or a vehicle. The rats co-administered with 60MOD + 4ATX reduced the rearing behavior frequency induced by MOD, but this behavior was sensitized by self-administration of the MOD+ATX mixture after chronic treatment. The rats pre-treated with 60MOD + 4ATX showed higher self-administration of MOD and greater activity on an operant task to obtain the MOD+ATX mixture. In addition, the 60MOD, 2ATX, and 60MOD + 2ATX groups showed sensitization of exploratory behavior after ingesting the mixture. Results suggest that the noradrenergic system enhances the incentive value of MOD and a MOD+ATX mixture, while also playing an important role in the sensitization of exploratory behavior.

Are stimulant and non-stimulant drugs effective and safe for treating ADHD co-occurring with epilepsy in children? ACochrane Review summary with commentary.

Not required.

Two green spectrofluorimetric methods for the assay of atomoxetine hydrochloride in pure form and commercial capsules with application to content uniformity testing.

Atomoxetine hydrochloride (ATX) is a potent and non-stimulant drug which was approved for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Owing to its importance, two green, simple and validated spectrofluorimetric methods were developed for its sensitive assay in pure and capsule forms. The first method (Method I) relied on measuring the enhanced fluorescence of ATX by the use of sodium dodecyl sulfate in alkaline medium at λ ex 227 nm/λ em 298 nm. The second method (Method II) involved complex formation of ATX with Erythrosine B (EB) in aqueous acidic solution resulting in quantitative quenching of the EB naive fluorescence. This complex was formed in the presence of Britton-Robinson buffer (pH 4.0). The difference in fluorescence intensity was measured at λ ex 527/λ em550 nm. The calibration curves were linear through the ranges of 0.2-2.0 µg ml-1 for Method I, 0.2-4.0 µg ml-1 for Method II with good correlation coefficient (r = 0.9998) for both methods. The suggested methods were perfectly applied for determination of ATX in its commercial capsules and content uniformity test. The greenness of the proposed methods was confirmed by three different assessment tools and it was found that both methods were green, eco-friendly and environmentally safe.

Streptavidin Fe2O3-gold nanoparticles functionalized theranostic liposome for antibiotic resistant bacteria and biotin sensing

Novel methods of sensing and treatment required to elicit potent humoral and cellular immune responses. Here, Streptavidin functionalized α-Fe2O3–Au nanoparticles (STV-Mag) loaded cationic carbomate cholesterol is used as a carrier to release antibacterial thymol drug for Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infected Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Pertaining to theranostic applications, efficient antimicrobial activity, and non-stimulated drug release and biotin dependent S. aureus growth were studied in-vivo. While STV-Mag was tethered on mercaptobenzoic acid (MBA) molecular cushion for label free streptavidin-biotin electrochemical sensing, the STV-Mag-carbomate cholesterol (STV-Mag-cCHOL liposome) vesicle with loaded drug was tethered on MBA for non-stimulant drug release through specific cholesterol-S. aureus interaction and confirmed electrochemically. Selectivity was confirmed using other pathogens, E. coli, Proteus and Enterococcus bacterium through antimicrobial studies along with S. aureus. The biotin sensing showed linear range from 10−15 to 10−3 M, which was not obtained by conventional methods. Fourier-Transform Infra-red (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) techniques were used to characterize the nanoparticulate system.

Rates and Patterns of Australian Emergency Department Presentations of People Who Use Stimulants: A Systematic Literature Review.

The use of illicit stimulants continues to pose a significant challenge to different health sectors. In Australia, four particular stimulants, namely amphetamines and their derivatives, methamphetamine, ecstasy or 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), and cocaine cause a significant challenge to EDs as managing patients who use stimulants can be labor and resource intensive. While Australian data are available for stimulant-related ambulance attendances and hospitalizations, little is known about ED presentations of people who use stimulants. The aim of this paper is to systematically review the available literature related to the rates and patterns of ED presentations of people who use stimulants in Australia. A search was conducted on EBSCOhost, CINAHL Complete, and PubMed databases, as well as Google Scholar. Search terms consisted of combinations of the following terms: 1) stimulant AND ED AND Australia; 2) stimulants AND emergency presentations OR accident and emergency AND Australia, 3) amphetamine OR methamphetamine OR ecstasy OR cocaine AND ED AND Australia. Articles that met the inclusion criteria were included in the review and subjected to a quality appraisal. Data were extracted from the selected papers, including patient demographics, presentation rates, type of stimulant, reasons for presentations, police or ambulance service involvement, comorbidities, mental health issues, triage codes, admissions, and separations. The results of the review are reported using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were eligible if they were English-language peer-reviewed articles published between January 2011 and December 2021 and if they included data on Australian ED presentations of people who use non-prescription illicit stimulants. Studies were excluded if they did not include stimulant-related ED presentations or focused on ED presentations related to prescription stimulants, including Ritalin and Adderall, non-stimulant drugs, or caffeine for attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The selected articles were appraised for quality, rigor, and risk of bias by two authors. The studies were assessed using the Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS) for cross-sectional, cohort, and case-control studies depending on the methodology identified in the study. A total of 19 articles were included in this study. Males represented 53 to 85% of ED presentations of people who use stimulants with an age range of 0 to 65 and are more likely to be transported by police or ambulance. People who use stimulants presented to EDs with varying psychological and behavioral concerns such as psychosis, self-harm, suicidal ideations, hallucinations, agitations, and aggressiveness, as well as medical conditions, including heart palpitations, nausea and vomiting, and significant physical injuries.

Viloxazine for the Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a widely diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorder giving rise to symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattentiveness that can impair daily functioning. Stimulants, such as methylphenidate and amphetamines, are the mainstay of treatment for ADHD. However, nonstimulant drugs such as viloxazine, atomoxetine, guanfacine, and clonidine are becoming more popular due to minimal adverse effects when compared to stimulants. Viloxazine is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI) originally used to treat depression in adults with activity in both the noradrenergic as well as serotonergic pathways. Studies have demonstrated its efficacy for its use in the treatment of ADHD. Unlike stimulants, viloxazine has a decreased chance of substance abuse, drug dependance, and withdrawal symptoms upon the cessation of therapy. Additionally, dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens after treatment with viloxazine are elevated considerably less in comparison with traditional stimulant ADHD treatments. Viloxazine provides an alternative, nonstimulant approach to treating ADHD. Viloxazine is a recently approved, non-stimulant medication functions by inhibiting the uptake of norepinephrine which has been seen to be decreased in patients with ADHD. When patients do not respond to first-line stimulants, cannot tolerate the side effects, or have contraindications to stimulants, viloxazine may be a nonstimulant option offering patients an increasing arsenal of medications to treat ADHD.

Stimulant and non-stimulant drug therapy for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy.

Stimulant and non-stimulant drug therapy for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy.

A role for cortical dopamine in the paradoxical calming effects of psychostimulants

Psychostimulants have a paradoxical calming effect in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but their mechanism of action is unclear. Studies using dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT) knockout (KO) mice have suggested that the paradoxical calming effect of psychostimulants might occur through actions on serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission. However, newer non-stimulant drugs, such as atomoxetine and guanfacine, suggest that targeting the norepinephrine (NE) system in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) might explain this paradoxical calming effect. Thus, we sought to clarify the mechanism of this paradoxical action of psychostimulants. Our ex vivo efflux experiments reveal that the NE transporter (NET) blocker desipramine elevates both norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA), but not 5-HT levels, in PFC tissue slices from wild-type (WT) and DAT-KO, but not NET-KO mice. However, the 5-HT transporter (SERT) inhibitor fluoxetine elevates only 5-HT in all three genotypes. Systemic administration of desipramine or fluoxetine inhibits hyperactivity in DAT-KO mice, whereas local PFC infusion of desipramine alone produced this same effect. In contrast, pharmacological NE depletion and DA elevation using nepicastat also inhibits hyperactivity in DAT-KO mice. Together, these data suggest elevation of PFC DA and not NE or 5-HT, as a convergent mechanism for the paradoxical effects of psychostimulants observed in ADHD therapy.

Biological Bases of Empathy and Social Cognition in Patients with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Focus on Treatment with Psychostimulants.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in investigating the effect of specific pharmacological treatments for ADHD not only on its core symptoms, but also on social skills in youths. This stands especially true for ADHD patients displaying impulsive aggressiveness and antisocial behaviors, being the comorbidity with Disruptive Behavior Disorders, one of the most frequently observed in clinical settings. This systematic review aimed to synthesize research findings on this topic following PRISMA guidelines and to identify gaps in current knowledge, future directions, and treatment implications. Search strategies included the following terms: ADHD; methylphenidate and other ADHD drugs; empathy, theory of mind and emotion recognition. Full-text articles were retrieved and data from individual studies were collected. Thirteen studies were finally included in our systematic review. Ten studies assessing changes in empathy and/or theory of mind in patients with ADHD treated after pharmacological interventions were identified. Similarly, seven partially overlapping studies assessing changes in emotion recognition were retrieved. Despite a great heterogeneity in the methodological characteristics of the included studies, most of them reported an improvement in emphatic and theory of mind abilities in youths with ADHD treated with psychostimulants and nonstimulant drugs, as well as positive but less consistent results about emotion recognition performances.

Association of maternal attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and preterm birth: a cohort study

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects 3-7% of women of childbearing age. Whether ADHD is associated with an increased risk of preterm birth is unclear. National register-based cohort study. Sweden. Nulliparous women giving birth to singleton infants 2007-2014 (n=377381). Women were considered to have ADHD if they had been dispensed at least one prescription for ADHD medication, i.e. a central nervous system stimulant or non-stimulant drugs for ADHD, prior to, during or after pregnancy (2005-2014). Women with ADHD were compared with women without ADHD in regard to prevalence, severity and mode of onset of preterm birth. Logistic regression models were used, estimating adjusted odds ratios (aOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Adjustments were made for maternal age and country of birth (model 1), and in addition for body mass index (BMI), education, alcohol or substance use disorders, and pre-gestational medical and psychiatric co-morbidity (model 2). Preterm birth (<37weeks). During the study period, 6327 (1.7%) women gave birth and had ADHD according to our definition. These women had a higher rate of preterm birth compared with women without ADHD (7.3 versus 5.8%, aOR model 2: 1.17; 95% CI 1.05-1.30). ADHD was particularly associated with very (<32weeks) preterm births, and associations were seen with both spontaneous and medically indicated onsets. Women with ADHD (i.e. who had been dispensed ADHD medication at any time in 2005-2014) had an increased risk of preterm birth. Women with ADHD have a higher risk of preterm birth but most of it is due to modifiable risk factors.

Atomoxetine produces oxidative stress and alters mitochondrial function in human neuron-like cells

Atomoxetine (ATX) is a non-stimulant drug used in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and is a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It has been shown that ATX has additional effects beyond the inhibition of norepinephrine reuptake, affecting several signal transduction pathways and alters gene expression. Here, we study alterations in oxidative stress and mitochondrial function in human differentiated SH-SY5Y cells exposed over a range of concentrations of ATX. We found that the highest concentrations of ATX in neuron-like cells, caused cell death and an increase in cytosolic and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, and alterations in mitochondrial mass, membrane potential and autophagy. Interestingly, the dose of 10 μM ATX increased mitochondrial mass and decreased autophagy, despite the induction of cytosolic and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. Thus, ATX has a dual effect depending on the dose used, indicating that ATX produces additional active therapeutic effects on oxidative stress and on mitochondrial function beyond the inhibition of norepinephrine reuptake.

Atomoxetine Induced Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Introduction: Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder in children and adolescents. Atomoxetine is a non-stimulant drug used in the treatment of ADHD. Case Presentation: In this article, a case of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) which occurred in an 11-year-old boy with an increased dose of atomoxetine during ADHD treatment and disappeared with dose reduction is reported. This case is only the second OCD case resulting from the use of atomoxetine. Conclusion: The case reported herein is the second case caused by the use of atomoxetine and the first in which OCD symptoms regressed when the atomoxetine dose was reduced. OCD development due to atomoxetine consumption may occur at different doses. When OCD develops, the solution may be dose reduction, or it may be necessary to discontinue treatment with atomoxetine.

Evaluation of the response of lisdexamfetamine in children and adolescents with ADHD: quasi-experimental study

Introduction. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders. Although lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX) offers a treatment alternative, clinical evidence of LDX for ADHD has not been explored in Latin American pediatric population. Objective. To evaluate the LDX response in Mexican pediatric patients with ADHD. Method. We designed a quasi-experimental, uncontrolled before and after study to evaluate the LDX response in patients with severe ADHD. We established a diagnosis of ADHD according to DSM-5 criteria. We formed three groups: without previous treatment (group A), in treatment with stimulant drugs (group B) or in treatment with non-stimulant drugs (group C). Prior to the start of the study, letters of consent and informed consent were signed. We evaluated the effect of LDX based on the difference between ADHD-RS scores at the beginning and after six months. Results. We recruited a total of 144 patients (group A: 48 patients, group B: 57 patients, group C: 39 patients). All the groups showed a significant decrease in the mean score of ADHD-RS (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale) at six months (group A 37.57 vs. 22.34, p

Atomoxetina no Tratamento da Perturbaça?o da Hiperatividade - De?fice de Atença?o: Casuística de um Hospital Tercia?rio Português

INTRODUÇÃO: A perturbação da hiperatividade - défice de atenção (PHDA) é a doença neurocomportamental mais comum em idade pediátrica, sendo frequentemente necessário na sua abordagem terapêutica o uso de medidas farmacológicas. A atomoxetina, inibidor seletivo da recaptação pré-sináptica de noradrenalina, é um fármaco não estimulante aprovado desde 2002 para o tratamento da PHDA na criança e no adolescente. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar, num hospital terciário, o perfil de prescrição de atomoxetina, incluindo o motivo de prescrição, comorbilidades, dosagem, eficácia e eventuais efeitos adversos.MÉTODOS: Efetuamos um estudo retrospetivo de todos os doentes com o diagnóstico de PHDA, que iniciaram tra-tamento com atomoxetina num período de 24 meses. RESULTADOS: A amostra consistiu em 43 doentes, dos quais 39 completaram pelo menos 2 meses de tratamento com atomoxetina, tendo-se obtido sucesso terapêutico em 71,8% dos doentes, com um bom perfil de segurança (apenas 3 doentes descontinuaram o fármaco por efeitos adversos).CONCLUSÃO: Os autores realçam a segurança e a eficácia da atomoxetina no tratamento da PHDA, na amostra es-tudada, sobretudo após a ocorrência de efeitos adversos ou em situações de baixa eficácia do tratamento com psi-coestimulantes.

Stimulant and non-stimulant drug therapy for people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy

This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (Intervention). The objectives are as follows: Primary Objective: To examine the effect of stimulant or non‐stimulant drugs (or both) on seizure frequency and seizure severity in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid epilepsy. Secondary Objectives: To examine the effect of stimulant or non‐stimulant drugs (or both) on ADHD symptoms in children and adults with ADHD and comorbid epilepsy. To examine adverse effects profile and withdrawal rates of stimulant or non‐stimulant drugs (or both) in children and adults with ADHD and comorbid epilepsy. To examine the effect of stimulant or non‐stimulant drugs (or both) on cognitive state, general behaviour, and Quality of Life (QoL) in children and adults with ADHD and comorbid epilepsy.

Evaluation of dystonia in children and adolescents treated with atomoxetine within the Truven MarketScan database: a retrospective cohort study

ABSTRACTObjective: Atomoxetine is a non-stimulant drug indicated for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children aged ≥6 years, adolescents, and adults. In this retrospective cohort study, the incidence and risk of dystonia in children and adolescents treated with atomoxetine was compared to a propensity score-matched cohort of stimulant users.Methods: Data between 1 January 2006 and 31 December 2014 from patients aged 6–17 years in the Truven Health Analytics MarketScan database were used to generate two cohorts of patients: (1) atomoxetine users and (2) stimulant (methylphenidates or amphetamines) users. A Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to compare incidence of dystonia across propensity score-matched cohorts.Results: Of the 70,657 atomoxetine users, 70,655 users were propensity score-matched to a stimulant user. In the atomoxetine- and stimulant-treated cohorts, the crude incidence rates of dystonia were 54.9 (95% CI: 27.1–82.7) and 77.9 (95% CI: 49.1–106.8) per 100,000 person-years, respectively. The hazard ratio for occurrence of dystonia with atomoxetine use relative to stimulant use was 0.68 (95% CI: 0.36 − 1.28; P = 0.23).Conclusion: In this large retrospective cohort study, there was no significant difference in incidence or risk of dystonia among patients treated with atomoxetine compared to stimulants.

Age differences in outcomes among patients in the “Stimulant Abuser Groups to Engage in 12-Step” (STAGE-12) intervention

Emerging adults (roughly 18–29years) with substance use disorders can benefit from participation in twelve-step mutual-help organizations (TSMHO), however their attendance and participation in such groups is relatively low. Twelve-step facilitation therapies, such as the Stimulant Abuser Groups to Engage in 12-Step (STAGE-12), may increase attendance and involvement, and lead to decreased substance use. AimsAnalyses examined whether age moderated the STAGE-12 effects on substance use and TSMHO meeting attendance and participation. DesignWe utilized data from a multisite randomized controlled trial, with assessments at baseline, mid-treatment (week 4), end-of-treatment (week 8), and 3- and 6- months post-randomization. ParticipantsParticipants were adults with DSM-IV diagnosed stimulant abuse or dependence (N=450) enrolling in 10 intensive outpatient substance use treatment programs across the U.S. AnalysisA zero-inflated negative binomial random-effects regression model was utilized to examine age-by-treatment interactions on substance use and meeting attendance and involvement. FindingsYounger age was associated with larger treatment effects for stimulant use. Specifically, younger age was associated with greater odds of remaining abstinent from stimulants in STAGE-12 versus Treatment-as-Usual; however, among those who were not abstinent during treatment, younger age was related to greater rates of stimulant use at follow-up for those in STAGE-12 compared to TAU. There was no main effect of age on stimulant use. Younger age was also related to somewhat greater active involvement in different types of TSMHO activities among those in STAGE-12 versus TAU. There were no age-by-treatment interactions for other types of substance use or for treatment attendance, however, in contrast to stimulant use; younger age was associated with lower odds of abstinence from non-stimulant drugs at follow-up, regardless of treatment condition. These results suggest that STAGE-12 can be beneficial for some emerging adults with stimulant use disorder, and ongoing assessment of continued use is of particular importance.

Association of ADHD with increased motor vehicle crashes

Curry AE, Metzger KB, Pfeiffer MR, Elliott MR, Winston FK, Power TJ. Motor Vehicle Crash Risk Among Adolescents and Young Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA Pediatr 2017;171:756–63. Question Among adolescents and young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), what is the association of motor vehicle crash compared with those without ADHD? Design Retrospective cohort linking electronic health records to state traffic safety databases through December 2014. Setting Six primary care practices in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Participants All children in the practices born from 1987 to 1997. Intervention ADHD or not. Outcomes Driver's license acquisition and first involvement as a driver in a police-reported crash. Main Results The licensing probability of individuals 6 months after eligibility was 35% lower among those with versus without ADHD. The adjusted risk for first crash among licensed drivers with, versus without ADHD was 1.36 (95% CI, 1.25-1.48) and did not vary by sex or licensing age. Conclusions ADHD is associated with a higher risk of police-reported motor vehicle crash. Commentary According to the World Health Organization (WHO),1World Health Organization Global status report on road safety 2015.http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2015/en/Date accessed: August 13, 2017Google Scholar motor vehicle crash is the leading cause of death in adolescents and young adults between 15 and 29 years. In addition to the suffering and sadness, the economic cost represents approximately 3% of global Gross Domestic Product. People with ADHD also have a higher frequency of driving errors and drive more dangerously than those without ADHD. Curry et al, using electronic health records, found an association between drivers with ADHD and a 36% higher chance of a motor vehicle crash. An intriguing result from their study is the fact that most of the drivers with ADHD were off medication. Even though they conclude that the use of medication did not change the risk of driving accidents, their study was limited by whether the driver with ADHD was taking medication when the accident occurred. Several clinical trials and a systematic review2Gobbo M.A. Louzã M.R. Influence of stimulant and non-stimulant drug treatment on driving performance in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review.Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014; 24: 1425-1443Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar report that psychostimulants improve driving skill, especially among teenagers and young adult drivers with ADHD. This population would benefit from drivers' education focused on ADHD and the risks of driving motor vehicles.

Can a Person with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder be an Athlete?

AbstractAttention-deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neuropsychiatric disorder that impairs academic, social and occupational functioning in children, adolescents and adults. It is characterized by excessive activity, restlessness, and nervousness. The disease occurs in general at children before the age of 7 and usually is not easy to be detected, due to various symptoms. When the diagnosis is established the physician can prescribe two types of drugs, stimulants: amphetamine, dexamphetamine, lisdexamphetamine, methylphenidate, and non-stimulants such as: guanfacine, atomoxetine, and clonidine. So what can be done for a person who has ADHD, and wants to be an elite athlete? Due to the rules established by the World Anti-Doping Agency the stimulant drugs are prohibited in competition and if traces of a prohibited substance are detected in the sample of blood of the athlete his access to competition can be blocked from 2-4 years, from that date of the incident. Fortunately for some athletes the disease was acute in childhood but as they grew up the symptoms were reminiscent and they could concentrate at the sporting task that was supposed to be achieved. What about those athletes that still have the symptoms? Well, they can be treated with the non-stimulant drugs, but their doctor must monthly verify if the list of prohibited drugs has been changed. In conclusion we can say that ADHD can be an impediment, but with the help of parents, teachers, and physicians the athlete can achieve very good performances.