Non-standard Definitions Research Articles

Constitutionalism beyond compare: Martin Loughlin’s inadvertent case for comparative constitutional studies

This review essay considers two objections to which Martin Loughlin’s jeremiad Against Constitutionalism might appear to be vulnerable: first, that his argument is entirely stipulative in the sense that all the work is done by a non-standard definition of his central concept and, second that, even if this is not the case, he has not done enough to substantiate his claims about constitutionalism’s deleterious effects. The answer given is that the first objection largely fails but that the second succeeds. Loughlin’s definition of ‘constitutionalism’ as the ideology that has arisen in support of the global spread of written constitutions on the American model is thus somewhat non-standard. In its ordinary usage, ‘constitutionalism’ is a polysemic concept that expresses an aspirational ideal that is deliberately underspecified and contested. There is no uniform ideology of constitutionalism, but a wide variety of national traditions. Nevertheless, Loughlin’s account does capture certain common features of the legitimating claims made by written constitutions on the American model and his argument is to that extent not entirely stipulative. To enlist us in his project of opposing constitutionalism, however, Loughlin needed to conduct a much more thorough assessment of the deleterious effects he alleges have accompanied the spread of constitutionalism. The post-war adaptations of the American model in Germany, India and South Africa departed from it in significant ways. Not all the problems associated with the American model can be attributed to them and, conversely, not all the problems constitutionalism is encountering in these three countries can be attributed to the American model. In ignoring these differences, Loughlin’s argument too often relies on uninterrogated normative priors and unsubstantiated causal claims. His book in that sense makes an elegant, unintended case for the need for comparative constitutional studies as a field.

An ultraweak space-time variational formulation for the wave equation: Analysis and efficient numerical solution

We introduce an ultraweak space-time variational formulation for the wave equation, prove its well-posedness (even in the case of minimal regularity) and optimal inf-sup stability. Then, we introduce a tensor product-style space-time Petrov–Galerkin discretization with optimal discrete inf-sup stability, obtained by a non-standard definition of the trial space. As a consequence, the numerical approximation error is equal to the residual, which is particularly useful for a posteriori error estimation. For the arising discrete linear systems in space and time, we introduce efficient numerical solvers that appropriately exploit the equation structure, either at the preconditioning level or in the approximation phase by using a tailored Galerkin projection. This Galerkin method shows competitive behavior concerning wall-clock time, accuracy and memory as compared with a standard time-stepping method in particular in low regularity cases. Numerical experiments with a 3D (in space) wave equation illustrate our findings.

Framework for simulation-based control design evaluation for a snake robot as an example of a multibody robotic system

Snake robots are the multibody mechanisms allowing us to solve specific problems efficiently, i.e., navigate into diverse environments and maneuver through tight spaces or uneven grounds in a way that resembles living organisms. However, the path following and controlling such systems is challenging due to nonlinear dynamics, coupling between links, and nonstandard definitions of the set-point that differ from industrial applications. This paper describes a framework for simulation and evaluation of the controller design for snake robot as the set of tools for the 3D design and robot dynamic simulation. Combined with a theoretical background (equations of robot dynamics), it allows testing new solutions and strategies of robot control design. Firstly, based on the proposed methodology, we provide a mechanical design of a ten-link snake robot. We present control algorithms enabling point-to-point tracking of the robot position in two cases: (i) tracking the center of gravity of the robot and (ii) tracking the position of the head of the robot. Then we provide a simulation-based robustness analysis of a simple fault-tolerant control algorithm, where some snake robot joints are broken. The proposed framework can be used efficiently to study control strategies for multibody mechanisms.

Extreme Heat and Pregnancy Outcomes: A Scoping Review of the Epidemiological Evidence.

Background: Extreme heat caused by climate change is a major public health concern, disproportionately affecting poor and racialized communities. Gestational heat exposure is a well-established teratogen in animal studies, with a growing body of literature suggesting human pregnancies are similarly at risk. Characterization of extreme heat as a pregnancy risk is problematic due to nonstandard definitions of heat waves, and variable study designs. To better focus future research in this area, we conducted a scoping review to assess the effects of extreme heat on pregnancy outcomes. Methods: A scoping review of epidemiological studies investigating gestational heat-exposure and published 2010 and 2020, was conducted with an emphasis on study design, gestational windows of sensitivity, adverse pregnancy outcomes and characterization of environmental temperatures. Results: A sample of 84 studies was identified, predominantly set in high-income countries. Preterm birth, birthweight, congenital anomalies and stillbirth were the most common pregnancy outcome variables. Studies reported race/ethnicity and/or socioeconomic variables, however these were not always emphasized in the analysis. Conclusion: Use of precise temperature data by most studies avoided pitfalls of imprecise, regional definitions of heat waves, however inconsistent study design, and exposure windows are a significant challenge to systematic evaluation of this literature. Despite the high risk of extreme heat events and limited mitigation strategies in the global south, there is a significant gap in the epidemiological literature from these regions. Greater consistency in study design and exposure windows would enhance the rigor of this field.

Is academic rigor in Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) research in decline?

To determine how well definitions of SIDS in the literature are being cited and referenced. The "PubMed" database was searched for "sudden infant death syndrome" from 2020 to 2021. Of 421 original papers, 50 were randomly selected and checked to determine whether one of the three internationally accepted definitions of SIDS: Seattle, NICHD and San Diego definitions had been cited/quoted in the text and correctly referenced. Papers that incorrectly cited or did not cite one standard definitions were assigned into: (i) those that used mis-cited, idiosyncratic or other (alternative, non-standard) definitions and, (ii) those where there was no definition. Fifty-six per cent of papers correctly cited standard definitions, a 12% decrease from the 68% in a similar study in 2012. Of those only 22% both correctly cited/referenced one of the standard definitions. Major issues in 78% of papers involved citing one and referencing another standard definition (N=7, 14%), citing or referencing alternative, non-standard definitions (N=8, 16%) or not citing or referencing any definition (N=24, 48%). There is an increasing trend to not follow standard definitions of SIDS. This may hinder data interpretation where cases have not been appropriately defined and negatively impact upon the validity of SIDS research.

Critical assessment of the Rolfe-Novak CVN-KIC upper shelf correlation

The Rolfe-Novak correlation, was the first attempt to relate Charpy-V impact energy to a fracture mechanical material parameter. They tested 11 materials with variable yield strength, mainly in the range 1000–1300 MPa. This data was used to develop a correlation between Charpy-V notch energy and linear elastic fracture toughness KIc. The correlation is considered as base for high strength steel CVN-KIc correlations still today. The historic Rolfe – Novak fracture toughness data are here re-analyzed based on present understanding of fracture mechanics. It is shown that the original results were affected by different specimen sizes, shallow flaw effects, varying degree of plasticity and a non-systematic and non-standard engineering definition of fracture toughness KIc. The data has been re-evaluated in terms of the new size-independent fracture toughness definition KIsi, now described in ASTM E399. Based on the re-evaluation a new physically sound correlation between CVN and KIsi is determined. KIsi is shown to be close to KJIc according to ASTM E1820 for high strength steels.

NONSTANDARD COMPLETION OF NON-COMPLETE METRIC SPACE

Our aim in this study is to establishing nonstandard foundations, definitions and theorems for completion a noncomplete metric spaces. We have a lot of space or sets X which agree with all usual properties of complete, except at a small size subset of it. In this paper, by using nonstandard analysis tools founded by A. Robinson and axiomatized by E. Nelson, we try to introduce a new notion of completion corresponding to nonstandard modified metric , and to use it to reprove the classical (standard) completion theorem and to overcome the incompetence of those spaces which has deprivation at a small size subset.

Creative Experience: A Non-Standard Definition of Creativity

ABSTRACT We propose a working definition of creative experience that involves principled engagement with the unfamiliar and a willingness to approach the familiar in unfamiliar ways. In other words, a creative experience can be defined as novel person world encounters grounded in meaningful actions and interactions, which are marked by the principles of: open-endedness, nonlinearity, pluri-perspectives and future-orientation. Our definition shares some similarities with the standard definition offered by Runco and Jaeger in that it still recognizes the importance of novelty and effectiveness but goes beyond that definition by asserting that novelty and meaningfulness are not sufficient for characterizing creative experiences. Indeed, as we will discuss, creative experiences are marked by a set of principles that we argue inhere in all creative actions.

Rates of Bleeding and Discontinuation of Direct Oral Anticoagulants in Patients With Decompensated Cirrhosis

Studies of the effects of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in patients with cirrhosis have been limited by their small sample size, inclusion of patients with well-compensated cirrhosis, short follow-up times, inadequate validation of cirrhosis diagnoses, and non-standard definitions of bleeding. We aimed to systematically determine the characteristics, indications, and outcomes of patients with cirrhosis of all severity classes who received DOACs. We performed a retrospective study of 138 patients with confirmed cirrhosis (93 with Child-Turcotte-Pugh scores of B or C) at a single center who started DOAC therapy (58,984 person-days; median, 181 days per patient) from September 2011 through April 2019. We collected data on clinical characteristics, indications for DOAC use, and outcomes. Standardized and validated definitions for bleeding complications were used. Twenty-nine patients (21%) stopped therapy due to a diagnosis of or perceived bleeding. The most common bleeding events were non-variceal upper and lower intestinal bleeding. No pretreatment laboratory parameters were associated with bleeding while patients received treatment, including platelet count (P = .50), international normalized ratio (P = .34), creatinine (P = .27), and model for end-stage liver disease score (P = .22). Frequency of bleeding events related to DOAC did not differ significantly among patients of different Child-Turcotte-Pugh classes (P = .81), DOAC indications (P = .60), or DOAC dosages (P = .10). Higher proportions of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (P = .01) had major bleeding while receiving. Patients with decompensated cirrhosis have significant bleeding and rates of discontinuation of DOACs when they take them long term. Pretreatment laboratory parameters, DOAC dose, and Child-Turcotte-Pugh class were not associated with bleeding; hepatocellular carcinoma was associated with major bleeding.

Recent World Health Organization regulatory recommendations are not supported by existing evidence.

The European Region of the World Health Organization (WHO) recently published revised recommendations for transportation noise exposure intended to limit adverse health effects. WHO's newly recommended "safe" limit for aircraft noise exposure is about an order of magnitude lower than the limits currently adopted by most European countries. WHO defines "safe exposure" as the level corresponding to an annoyance prevalence rate of 10% highly annoyed. The revised recommendations are based on a limited selection of post-2000 publications. About half of the cited studies rely on nonstandard questionnaires, respondent selection, and definitions of annoyance prevalence rates which over-estimate annoyance. A re-analysis of a larger and more representative selection of studies that relies on standard procedures shows that no meaningful changes in prevalence rates of high annoyance with aircraft noise have occurred and that existing evidence does not support WHO's revised recommendations.

On quadratically constrained quadratic optimization problems and canonical duality theory

In this work we provide a rigorous study of quadratically constrained quadratic optimization problems using the method suggested by the canonical duality theory (CDT). Then we compare our results with those obtained using CDT. We also point out unnecessarily strong assumptions (e.g. Ruan and Gao, in: Gao, Latorre, Ruan (eds) Canonical duality theory. Advances in mechanics and mathematics. Springer, Cham, vol 37, pp 315–338, 2017), non-standard definitions (e.g. Ruan and Gao, in: Gao, Latorre, Ruan (eds) Canonical duality theory. Advances in mechanics and mathematics. Springer, Cham, vol 37, pp 187–201, 2017), unclear statements (e.g. Gao and Ruan in J Glob Optim 47:463–484, 2010), false results (e.g. Gao et al. in J Glob Optim 45:473–497, 2009; Gao and Ruan 2010).

Definition of Clinical Outcomes in Pediatric Anesthesia Research: It Is Like the Tower of Babel!

Definition of Clinical Outcomes in Pediatric Anesthesia Research: It Is Like the Tower of Babel!

The unreasonable effectiveness of Nonstandard Analysis

Abstract As suggested by the title, the aim of this paper is to uncover the vast computational content of classical Nonstandard Analysis. To this end, we formulate a template ${\mathfrak{C}\mathfrak{I}}$ which converts a theorem of ‘pure’ Nonstandard Analysis, i.e. formulated solely with the nonstandard definitions (of continuity, integration, differentiability, convergence, compactness, etc.), into the associated effective theorem. The latter constitutes a theorem of computable mathematics no longer involving Nonstandard Analysis. To establish the huge scope of ${\mathfrak{C}\mathfrak{I}}$, we apply this template to representative theorems from the Big Five categories from Reverse Mathematics. The latter foundational program provides a classification of the majority of theorems from ‘ordinary’, i.e. non-set theoretical, mathematics into the aforementioned five categories. The Reverse Mathematics zoo gathers exceptions to this classification, and is studied in [ 74, 77] using ${\mathfrak{C}\mathfrak{I}}$. Hence, the template ${\mathfrak{C}\mathfrak{I}}$ is seen to apply to essentially all of ordinary mathematics, thanks to the Big Five classification (and associated zoo) from Reverse Mathematics. Finally, we establish that certain ‘highly constructive’ theorems, called Herbrandizations, also imply the original theorem of Nonstandard Analysis from which they were obtained via ${\mathfrak{C}\mathfrak{I}}$.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of Preoperative Prophylactic Antibiotics Prior to Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy in a Low Infectious Risk Population: A Report from the EDGE Consortium

Single institution studies suggest a benefit of a week of preoperative antibiotics prior to percutaneous nephrolithotomy. These studies are limited by lower quality methodology, such as the inclusion of heterogeneous populations or nonstandard definitions of sepsis. The AUA (American Urological Association) Best Practice Statement recommends less than 24 hours of intravenous antibiotics but to our knowledge no other data exist on the duration or benefit of preoperative antibiotics. Using CONSORT (Consolidated Reporting of Trials) guidelines we sought to perform a rigorous multi-institutional trial to assess preoperative antibiotics in patients in whom percutaneous nephrolithotomy was planned and who were at low risk for infection. This randomized controlled trial enrolled patients undergoing percutaneous nephrolithotomy who were at low risk, defined as negative preoperative urine cultures and no urinary drain. Of the subjects 43 were randomized to nitrofurantoin 100 mg twice daily for 7 days preoperatively while a control arm of 43 received no oral antibiotics. All subjects received perioperative doses of ampicillin and gentamicin. Prone percutaneous nephrolithotomy was performed by urologists blinded to randomization. The primary outcome was the development of sepsis. A total of 86 subjects were enrolled. Preoperative patient characteristics were similar in the treatment and control cohorts with a stone size of 19 and 17 mm, respectively (p = 0.47). Intraoperative characteristics also did not differ. The sepsis rate was not statistically different between the treatment and control groups (12% and 14%, respectively, 95% CI -0.163-0.122, p = 1.0). Other infectious parameters and complications were similar, including intensive care admission, fever, hypotension and leukocytosis. Our study demonstrated no advantage to providing 1 week of preoperative oral antibiotics in patients at low risk for infectious complications who undergo percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Perioperative antibiotics according to the AUA Best Practice Statement appear sufficient.

Tolerance-based Pareto optimality for structural identification accounting for uncertainty

Structural parameter identification often requires an estimate, at least in a qualitative fashion, of the uncertainty of the solution. This uncertainty quantification should account for the sensitivity of the response to the sought parameters, the error in the measurement and the repeatability of the test. In this paper, repeatability is taken into account into a multi-objective framework, while a non-standard definition of Pareto dominance based on a given tolerance in the objective satisfaction allows one to consider uncertainty in the experimental data. The solution of the identification is not given as a single value, but a region of the parameter space which is compatible with the data and accounts for uncertainties and response sensitivity to model parameters. The procedure is applied to an experimental test on a masonry panel, showing its effectiveness in discriminating identifiable parameters from those affected by higher uncertainty.

Outcomes of Surgical Sepsis.

Discussion of outcomes of surgical sepsis is no longer straightforward. Definitions of sepsis have changed recently and updated data are scant. Surgical patient populations are often heterogeneous; the patient population being considered must be described with precision. Traditional 30-d operative mortality may not be the most relevant outcome to consider. What should change or be the emphasis going forward? Review and synthesis of pertinent English-language literature. Epidemiologic data are abundant for short-term outcomes of sepsis in general, but despite the fact that approximately 30% of patients with sepsis are surgical patients, sepsis outcome data for surgical patients are scant, especially for durations longer than 30 d, and essentially non-existent for patients defined under the new Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3) criteria. Interpretability of extant data is hampered by non-standard and changing definitions. Sepsis and organ dysfunction may be decreasing in prevalence and magnitude among surgical patients, but terminology must be standardized to enhance the interpretability of data generated in the future. It behooves journal editors, reviewers, and authors to insist upon standardized definitions and rigorous study design and data interpretation. Longer term data (e.g., 90-d mortality as opposed to in-hospital or traditional 30-d mortality) will be needed to justify to payers the complex, expensive care that these patients require. There is an urgent need to redefine the research agenda for surgical infections.

Using thermodynamics to identify quantum subsystems

There are many ways to decompose the Hilbert space of a composite quantum system into tensor product subspaces. Different subsystem decompositions generally imply different interaction Hamiltonians V, and therefore different expectation values for subsystem observables. This means that the uniqueness of physical predictions is not guaranteed, despite the uniqueness of the total Hamiltonian H and the total Hilbert space . Here we use Clausius’ version of the second law of thermodynamics (CSL) and standard identifications of thermodynamic quantities to identify possible subsystem decompositions. It is shown that agreement with the CSL is obtained, whenever the total Hamiltonian and the subsystem-dependent interaction Hamiltonian commute (i.e. ). Not imposing this constraint can result in the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter subsystem, in conflict with thermodynamics. We also investigate the status of the CSL with respect to non-standard definitions of thermodynamic quantities and quantum subsystems.

The frailty syndrome is associated with adverse health outcomes in very old patients with stable heart failure: A prospective study in six Spanish hospitals

BackgroundMost studies on the association between the frailty syndrome and adverse health outcomes in patients with heart failure (HF) have used non-standard definitions of frailty. This study examined the association of frailty, diagnosed by well-accepted criteria, with mortality, readmission and functional decline in very old ambulatory patients with HF. MethodsProspective study with 497 patients in six Spanish hospitals and followed up during one year. Mean (SD) age was 85.2 (7.3) years, and 79.3% had LVEF >45%. Frailty was diagnosed as having ≥3 of the 5 Fried criteria. Readmission was defined as a new episode of hospitalisation lasting >24h, and functional decline as an incident limitation in any activity of daily living at the 1-year visit. Statistical analyses were performed with Cox and logistic regression, as appropriate, and adjusted for the main prognostic factors at baseline. ResultsAt baseline, 57.5% of patients were frail. The adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence interval) for mortality among frail versus non-frail patients was 1.93 (1.20–3.27). Mortality was higher among patients with low physical activity [1.64 (1.10–2.45)] or exhaustion [1.83 (1.21–2.77)]. Frailty was linked to increased risk of readmission [1.66 (1.17–2.36)] and functional decline [odds ratio 1.67 (1.01–2.79)]. Slow gait speed was related to functional decline [odds ratio 3.59 (1.75–7.34)]. A higher number of frailty criteria was associated with a higher risk of the three study outcomes (P trend<0.01 in each outcome). ConclusionsFrailty was associated with increased risk of 1-year mortality, hospital readmission and functional decline among older ambulatory patients with HF.

Community-Acquired Acute Kidney Injury: A Nationwide Survey in China

This study aimed to describe the burden of community-acquired acute kidney injury (AKI) in China based on a nationwide survey about AKI. Cross-sectional and retrospective study. A national sample of 2,223,230 hospitalized adult patients from 44 academic/local hospitals in Mainland China was used. AKI was defined according to the 2012 KDIGO AKI creatinine criteria or an increase or decrease in serum creatinine level of 50% during the hospital stay. Community-acquired AKI was identified when a patient had AKI that could be defined at hospital admission. The rate, cause, recognition, and treatment of community-acquired AKI were stratified according to hospital type, latitude, and economic development of the regions in which the patients were admitted. All-cause in-hospital mortality and recovery of kidney function at hospital discharge. 4,136 patients with community-acquired AKI were identified during the 2 single-month snapshots (January 2013 and July 2013). Of these, 2,020 (48.8%) had cases related to decreased kidney perfusion; 1,111 (26.9%), to intrinsic kidney disease; and 499 (12.1%), to urinary tract obstruction. In the north versus the south, more patients were exposed to nephrotoxins or had urinary tract obstructions. 536 (13.0%) patients with community-acquired AKI had indications for renal replacement therapy (RRT), but only 347 (64.7%) of them received RRT. Rates of timely diagnosis and appropriate use of RRT were higher in regions with higher per capita gross domestic product. All-cause in-hospital mortality was 7.3% (295 of 4,068). Delayed AKI recognition and being located in northern China were independent risk factors for in-hospital mortality, and referral to nephrology providers was an independent protective factor. Possible misclassification of AKI and community-acquired AKI due to nonstandard definitions and missing data for serum creatinine. The features of community-acquired AKI varied substantially in different regions of China and were closely linked to the environment, economy, and medical resources.

Piketty’s Elasticity of Substitution: A Critique

ABSTRACTThis article examines Thomas Piketty’s explanation of a falling wage share. Piketty explains rising income inequality between labor and capital as a result of one parameter of a production function: an elasticity of substitution, σ, between labor and capital greater than one. This article reviews Piketty’s elasticity argument, which relies on a non-standard definition of capital. In light of the theory of land rent, it discusses why the non-standard capital definition is a measure of wealth, not capital and is problematic for estimating elasticities. It then presents simple long-run estimates of σ in constant elasticity of substitution functions for Piketty’s data as well as for a subset of his capital measure that comes closer to the standard definition of productive capital. The estimation results cast doubt on Piketty’s hypothesis that σ is greater than one.