Nonsexual Victimization Research Articles

Women's Empowerment Through Access to Safe Transport: The Impact of Sexual and Nonsexual Victimization on Female Commuters in Bangladesh and Cambodia.

An examination of women's experience on public transport in Bangladesh and Cambodia found that victimization does reduce perceived safety or transport use. In a cultural context where women are socialized to fear and avoid public spaces, experiencing victimization may confirm rather than change previous beliefs. Moreover, it is possible that the participants' use of public transport was driven by necessity rather than choice and that they were unable to change travel patterns in response to victimization. These findings underscore the importance of targeting public violence toward women and the broader societal norms that limit their participation in public life.

Assessing the Victimizaton-Offending Hypothesis of Sexual and Non-Sexual Violence in a Nationally Representative Sample of Incarcerated Men in the United States: Implications for Trauma-Informed Practice in Correctional Settings.

Rates of exposure to sexual and non-sexual physical violence and other adverse childhood events are greater among people who are incarcerated with convictions for offenses related to sexual and non-sexual violence compared to other incarcerated populations and the general community. Few studies have differentiated which types of prior adverse experiences are greatest predictors of sexual and non-sexual violent offenses. The following study investigated associations between experiencing sexual abuse as a child or adult; experiencing non-sexual physical violence during childhood, adulthood, or both; having a caretaker who uses drugs; being in foster care; growing up in socioeconomically marginalized conditions; and the likelihood of reporting a prior physical or sexual conviction. The sample consisted of 13,604 men incarcerated in state and federal prisons in the United States. Multinomial regression models compared convictions for sexual offenses and non-sexual violent offenses to all other crimes. A model also compared sexual offenses to non-sexual violent offenses to differentiate between types of adverse childhood experiences associated with sexual versus non-sexual violent offending. Models adjusted for race/ethnicity, education, and age. Results suggest that exposure to violence during childhood was significantly and violence during adulthood was insignificantly associated with increased risk of conviction for a non-sexual physical offense. Sexual violence victimization as a child only was associated with increased risk of conviction for sexual violence perpetration during adulthood. Foster care involvement was associated with increased risk of being convicted for a non-sexual violent offense. Findings suggest that different traumatic pathways may differentiate types of aggression in adulthood. Future research must evaluate if trauma-informed approaches should be catered to address the unique effects of sexual and non-sexual victimization and the perpetration of different types of aggression in adulthood.

The centrality of relationships in context: a comparison of factors that predict the sexual and non-sexual victimization of transgender women in prisons for men

ABSTRACT This research draws on original data to empirically assess how an array of factors – including features of the self, the prison environment, and prisoners’ interactions with each other – shape the probability of transgender women in prisons for men experiencing sexual victimization and non-sexual physical assault. Logistic regression analyses reveal that, in general, the same factors that predict sexual assault per se predict sexual victimization more generally as well as non-sexual assault. The most consistently powerful predictor is an interactional variable: whether transgender women report having been in a consensual sexual relationship with another prisoner, which consistently approximately triples the odds of all three categories of victimization (i.e., sexual assault, sexual victimization, and non-sexual assault). The prominence of this durable interactional predictor points to lifestyle and routines as the most proximate influence on victimization – sexual or otherwise. This, in turn, allows for both a more robust understanding of the social organization of violence and victimization within prison settings as well as a more robust understanding of the relationships between different types of victimization.

School-aged children with sexual behavior problems: Untangling the relationship between externalizing behavior problems and non-sexual victimization on the variety and severity of sexual behaviors

BackgroundSexual behavior problems (SBP) in school-aged children is a social concern that draws increased attention amongst child protection services and practitioners. Past research that highlighted the variety in profiles and in behavioral manifestations of children with SBP emphasizes the importance of a well-informed and sensitive approach for appropriate intervention. However, studies validating the theoretically hypothesized vulnerability of children with SBP remains scarce. ObjectiveThis study aimed to further our understanding of the risk factors that influence the variety and severity of SBP. Participants and settingEighty-eight child-adult dyads (35.2% girls, Mage = 9.1 years; SD = 2.2 years) referred for SBP by child protection services or public services between 2006 and 2010 participated in the study. Participants completed a series of questionnaires as part of their assessment in a specialized therapeutic center for SBP. MethodsA theoretical model of risk factors was examined using multiple linear regression analysis. ResultsAmongst the factors identified, externalizing behavior problems were the most strongly associated with the variety (β = .50; p < 0.001) and severity of SBP (β = .40; p < .001). Non-sexual victimization experiences (e.g., exposure to family violence) were also associated with a greater variety (β = .30; p < .001) and severity of SBP (β = .36; p < .001), while sexual abuse alone was not. ConclusionsThis study outlines the high co-occurrence of SBP, externalizing behaviors and non-sexual victimization, which should raise concern for the assessment of the children and to further adapt treatment strategies and goals.

Reducing Violence in Correctional Institutions: Revalidation of the Inmate Risk Assessment for Violent, Nonsexual Victimization

Jail and prison administrators are responsible for ensuring institutional safety and order. Recent estimates indicate violence in correctional institutions is pervasive. One promising approach to reduce institutional violence is using a risk assessment to predict the likelihood of victimization. Once corrections officials identify high victimization risk offenders, these authorities can take steps to triage interventions to mitigate such risks. This strategy, however, requires a classification instrument that is available and predictively valid. In 2014, Labrecque, Smith, and Wooldredge created one such tool—the Inmate Risk Assessment for Violent, Nonsexual Victimization (RVNSV). This study reassesses the predictive validity of the RVNSV on a sample of adult inmates in the United States. The results indicate the RVNSV is a valid predictor of inmate victimization, among males and females.

Reducing Violence in Correctional Institutions: Revalidation of the Inmate Risk Assessment for Violent, Nonsexual Victimization.

Jail and prison administrators are responsible for ensuring institutional safety and order. Recent estimates indicate violence in correctional institutions is pervasive. One promising approach to reduce institutional violence is using a risk assessment to predict the likelihood of victimization. Once corrections officials identify high victimization risk offenders, these authorities can take steps to triage interventions to mitigate such risks. This strategy, however, requires a classification instrument that is available and predictively valid. In 2014, Labrecque, Smith, and Wooldredge created one such tool-the Inmate Risk Assessment for Violent, Nonsexual Victimization (RVNSV). This study reassesses the predictive validity of the RVNSV on a sample of adult inmates in the United States. The results indicate the RVNSV is a valid predictor of inmate victimization, among males and females.

Multiple online victimization of Spanish adolescents: Results from a community sample

Little is known about online victimization of Spanish adolescents. The present study aims to determine the past-year prevalence of online victimization in a community sample of Spanish adolescents. The final sample consisted of 3,897 adolescents between 12 and 17 years old (M=14.45, SD=1.59), 1,836 males and 2,049 females, recruited from 39 secondary schools in the east of Spain. The Cuestionario de victimización juvenil mediante internet y/o teléfono móvil (hereinafter, Juvenile Online Victimization Questionnaire, JOV-Q, Montiel & Carbonell, 2012) was applied for the assessment of eight types of online victimization grouped in two major domains: sexual (sexual coercion, sexual pressure, online grooming by an adult, unwanted exposure to sexual content and violation of privacy); and nonsexual victimization (online harassment, happy slapping, pressure to obtain personal information). Sixty-one percent of adolescents reported online victimization during the last year. Online sexual victimization was reported by 39.5% of adolescents and nonsexual victimization by 53.4% of them, whereas 31% of youth reported having experienced online victimization in both domains. The highest prevalence rates were recorded for online harassment (50%), unwanted exposure to sexual content (24.4%), pressure to obtain personal information (18.4%) and online grooming by an adult (17.2%), and the lowest for sexual coercion (6.7%) and happy slapping (2.2%). Thirty-five percent of the adolescents were considered online polyvictims and most of them experienced victimization in both sexual and nonsexual domains (88%). This study illustrates that Spanish adolescents experience high levels of online victimization and that multiple online victimization appears to be the norm among cybervictims.

HIV risks and HIV prevention among female sex workers in two largest urban settings in Croatia, 2008–2014

Harm reduction-based HIV prevention has been in place among female sex workers (FSWs) in Croatia for more than a decade. However, little is known about how well the existing programs meet the needs of FSWs in an environment where sex work remains criminalized and highly stigmatized. This study aims to assess changes in FSWs' vulnerability to HIV infection in the 2008–2014 period. Using convenience samples of FSWs in Croatia's two largest urban settings, behavioral data were collected in 2007–2008 and 2014. Outreach workers interviewed 154 FSWs in the first wave of the survey and 158 in the second. The period under observation was characterized by a stable prevalence of most HIV-relevant risk behaviors and experiences. Significant changes in client-based victimization and HIV knowledge were observed only among FSWs in the capital city. Substantial and mostly sustained levels of sexual and nonsexual victimization call for more research into the limits of the current behavior-based harm reduction approach to HIV prevention in the country.

Creation and Validation of an Inmate Risk Assessment for Violent, Nonsexual Victimization

Recent prison studies have identified several factors associated with the odds of both committing and being victimized by inmate violence. Toward the end of developing an instrument for assessing an inmate’s risk of violent, nonsexual victimization, we examined predictors of victimization grounded in extant studies of the topic. The sample included 12,024 adult male inmates. Using a 25% random sample of these inmates, a risk assessment instrument was created to predict the likelihood of violent, nonsexual victimization during incarceration (the Inmate Risk Assessment for Violent Nonsexual Victimization [RVNSV]). The RVNSV was validated on the three additional random subsamples of inmates. Bivariate and multivariate analyses confirm the RVNSV as a valid predictor of institutional violent, nonsexual victimization. These findings support the further exploration of prison risk assessment tools that use measures of victimization as dependent variables.

Assessing the Risk of Nonsexual and Sexual Victimization Using Incident-Based Police Reports

Current research has affirmed that black women are most at risk for rape, assault, and intimate partner violence in the United States. These findings are often based on statistics from surveys like the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The NCVS collects data from a stratified sample of households in the United States from which one can establish victimization risk and rates at the national level. We know very little about a person's risk of violent crime victimization from police records at the local and state level because until recently the data were not available. This study, therefore, adds to current victimization research by utilizing state-level police data to examine violent crime victimization patterns. Specifically, using data from the U.S. Census Bureau and West Virginia Incident-Based Reporting System (WVIBRS), we construct a model to examine the risk of nonsexual and sexual victimization over a lifetime by sex and race. Our findings indicate that black females in West Virginia have the highest probability of experiencing a nonsexual and sexual victimization over their lifetime. They also have the highest risk of multiple victimizations for these crimes.

Risk Factors for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Female Help-Seeking Victims of Sexual Assault

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is common in the aftermath of rape and other sexual assault, but the risk factors leading to PTSD following rape have been shown to differ from those related to PTSD following nonsexual assault. This prospective study examined risk factors for PTSD severity in 148 female help-seeking victims of sexual assault. Approximately 70% of the victims experienced significant levels of traumatization, with 45% reporting symptoms consistent with a probable PTSD diagnosis. Regression analyses showed that relationship with the assailant, number of assailants, the nature of the assault, perceived positive social support, support satisfaction, feeling let down by others, and prior exposure to sexual trauma did not significantly predict PTSD severity at the final level of analysis. In accordance with suggestions by Dancu, Riggs, Hearst-Ikeda, and Shoyer (1996), it is suggested that this is partly caused by a very high degree of traumatization in the sample. Instead, previous nonsexual traumatic experiences and negative affectivity accounted for 30% of the variance in PTSD severity. Although more research is needed on risk factors of assault-related PTSD, these findings suggest that although sexual assault is associated with a high degree of PTSD severity, prior nonsexual victimization and high levels of negative affectivity appear to further increase the vulnerability toward developing symptoms of assault-related PTSD.

THE EFFECT OF FEAR OF SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION ON ADOLESCENT FEAR OF CRIME

The author examines the effect of fear of sexual victimization on fear of crime among adolescents. Criminologists have indicated that gender is one of the strongest predictors of fear of crime: Women are more fearful than men. Some authors (Warr 1984, and Ferraro 1995, among others) have suggested that this differential fear among women can mostly be attributed to their inordinate fear of sexual victimization. This relationship, however, has only been examined among adults. Using a sample of 725 adolescents, the effect of fear of sexual victimization and other demographic and contextual variables on fear of criminal victimization is examined. Results indicate that fear of sexual victimization is the best predictor of fear of nonsexual victimization, whereas the effects of other variables are contingent on race and gender. The reasons for this finding, as well as the implications for social policies, are discussed.

Explaining rape victim blame: A test of attribution theory

Rape victim‐blaming attitudes are examined with data from a probability sample of students at a southern university (male, n = 511; female, n = 666). Hypotheses derived from two competing versions of attribution theory, “defensive attribution” and “need for control,” are tested to examine the effects of gender, past female sexual victimization, past male sexual aggression, nonsexual crime victimization, and risk taking on rape myth acceptance. The results show that: (1) Females are substantially less likely to blame rape victims; (2) For the female subsample, risk taking and rape victim blame are negatively associated; (3) Among males, past sexual aggression and risk taking are positively related to victim blaming; and (4) Male experience with nonsexual victimization is negatively related to victim blaming. Each version of attribution theory is partially confirmed by the findings. Nationality, race/ethnicity, class standing, and rape prevention knowledge also influence victim blaming attitudes.