Non-protein Amino Acid Research Articles

Defensive Specialized Metabolites from the Latex of Euphorbia jolkinii.

Plant latex is sequestered in laticiferous structures and exuded immediately from damaged plant tissues. The primary function of plant latex is related to defense responses to their natural enemies. Euphorbia jolkinii Boiss. is a perennial herbaceous plant that greatly threaten the biodiversity and ecological integrity of northwest Yunnan, China. Nine triterpenes (1-9), four non-protein amino acids (10-13) and three glycosides (14-16) including a new isopentenyl disaccharide (14), were isolated and identified from the latex of E. jolkinii. Their structures were established on the basis of comprehensive spectroscopic data analyses. Bioassay revealed that meta-tyrosine (10) showed significant phytotoxic activity, inhibiting root and shoot growth of Zea mays, Medicago sativa, Brassica campestris, and Arabidopsis thaliana, with EC50 values ranging from 4.41 ± 1.08 to 37.60 ± 3.59µg/mL. Interestingly, meta-tyrosine inhibited the root growth of Oryza sativa, but promoted their shoot growth at the concentrations below 20µg/mL. meta-Tyrosine was found to be the predominant constituent in polar part of the latex extract from both stems and roots of E. jolkinii, but undetectable in the rhizosphere soil. In addition, some triterpenes showed antibacterial and nematicidal effects. The results suggested that meta-tyrosine and triterpenes in the latex might function as defensive substances for E. jolkinii against other organisms.

GABA Metabolism, Transport and Their Roles and Mechanisms in the Regulation of Abiotic Stress (Hypoxia, Salt, Drought) Resistance in Plants

γ- Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a ubiquitous four-carbon non-protein amino acid. In plants, GABA is found in different cell compartments and performs different metabolic functions. As a signalling molecule, GABA participates in the regulation of tolerance to various abiotic stresses. Many research studies have found that GABA accumulates in large amounts when plants are subjected to abiotic stress, which have been demonstrated through the Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier and other databases. GABA enhances the tolerance of plants to abiotic stress by regulating intracellular pH, ion transport, activating antioxidant systems and scavenging active oxygen species. In the process of GABA playing its role, transport is very important for the accumulation and metabolism pathway of GABA in cells. Therefore, the research on the transport of GABA across the cell membrane and the organelle membrane by transport proteins is a direction worthy of attention. This paper describes the distribution, biosynthesis and catabolism of GABA in plants. In addition, we focus on the latest progress in research on the transport of exogenous GABA and on the function and mechanism in the regulation of the abiotic stress response. Based on this summary of the role of GABA in the resistance to various abiotic stresses, we conclude that GABA has become an effective compound for improving plant abiotic tolerance.

Optimizing Levilactobacillus brevis NPS-QW 145 Fermentation for Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Production in Soybean Sprout Yogurt-like Product

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a non-protein amino acid with various physiological functions. Levilactobacillus brevis NPS-QW 145 strains active in GABA catabolism and anabolism can be used as a microbial platform for GABA production. Soybean sprouts can be treated as a fermentation substrate for making functional products. This study demonstrated the benefits of using soybean sprouts as a medium to produce GABA by Levilactobacillus brevis NPS-QW 145 when monosodium glutamate (MSG) is the substrate. Based on this method, a GABA yield of up to 2.302 g L-1 was obtained with a soybean germination time of one day and fermentation of 48 h with bacteria using 10 g L-1 glucose according to the response surface methodology. Research revealed a powerful technique for producing GABA by fermentation with Levilactobacillus brevis NPS-QW 145 in foods and is expected to be widely used as a nutritional supplement for consumers.

Extraterrestrial amino acids and amines identified in asteroid Ryugu samples returned by the Hayabusa2 mission

The hot water and acid extracts of two different Ryugu samples collected by the Hayabusa2 mission were analyzed for the presence of aliphatic amines and amino acids. The abundances and relative distributions of both classes of molecules were determined, as well as the enantiomeric compositions of the chiral amino acids. The Ryugu samples studied here were recovered from sample chambers A and C, which were composed of surface material, and a combination of surface and possible subsurface material, respectively. A total of thirteen amino acids were detected and quantitated in these samples, with an additional five amino acids that were tentatively identified but not quantitated. The abundances of four aliphatic amines identified in the Ryugu samples were also determined in the current work. Amino acids were observed in the acid hydrolyzed and unhydrolyzed hot water extracts of asteroid Ryugu regolith using liquid chromatography with UV fluorescence detection and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Conversely, aliphatic amines were only analyzed in the unhydrolyzed hot water Ryugu extracts. Two- to six-carbon (C2-C6) amino acids with individual abundances ranging from 0.02 to 15.8 nmol g−1, and one- to three-carbon (C1-C3) aliphatic amines with individual abundances from 0.05 to 34.14 nmol g−1, were found in the hot water extracts. Several non-protein amino acids that are rare in biology, including β-amino-n-butyric acid (β-ABA) and β-aminoisobuytric acid (β-AIB), were racemic or very nearly racemic, thus indicating their likely abiotic origins. Trace amounts of select protein amino acids that were enriched in the l-enantiomer may indicate low levels of terrestrial amino acid contamination in the samples. However, the presence of elevated abundances of free and racemic alanine, a common protein amino acid in terrestrial biology, and elevated abundances of the predominately free and racemic non-protein amino acids, β-ABA and β-AIB, indicate that many of the amino acids detected in the Ryugu water extracts were indigenous to the samples. Although the Ryugu samples have been found to be chemically similar to CI type carbonaceous chondrites, the measured concentrations and relative distributions of amino acids and aliphatic amines in Ryugu samples were notably different from those previously observed for the CI1.1 carbonaceous chondrite, Orgueil. This discrepancy could be the result of differences in the original chemical compositions of the parent bodies and/or alteration conditions, such as space weathering. In addition to α-amino acids that could have been formed by Strecker cyanohydrin synthesis during a low temperature aqueous alteration phase, β-, γ-, and δ-amino acids, including C3 – C5 straight-chain n-ω-amino acids that are not formed by Strecker synthesis, were also observed in the Ryugu extracts. The suite of amino acids measured in the Ryugu samples indicates that multiple amino acid formation mechanisms were active on the Ryugu parent body. The analytical techniques used here are well-suited to search for similar analytes in asteroid Bennu material collected by the NASA OSIRIS-REx mission scheduled for Earth return in September 2023.

Anti-Nutritional Factors in Animal Feedstuffs: A Review

Plants naturally co-exist with their predators and have therefore developed certain defense mechanisms against them. These include production of secondary metabolites, which are not directly involved in their growth processes (as opposed to primary metabolites), but act as deterrents to their predators. Some of these metabolites, known as anti-nutritional factors, affect the nutritive value of forages and feedstuffs, and hence animals (including humans) that feed on them. Although they are generally not lethal, their effects may be contrary to optimum nutrition, making them undesirable for human and animal nutrition as they may interfere with feed utilization, health and productivity of animals. Their wide distribution in plants is determined by age, cultivar, geographic distribution, and storage condition after harvesting. Certain characteristics which they possess, together with other reasons make them to be found at some levels in almost all plants and plant products used as animal feedstuffs. The major classes of anti-nutritional factors include glycosides, alkaloids, protease inhibitors, amylase inhibitors, phenolic compounds, phytohaemagglutinins, phytates, terpenes/triterpenes, non-protein amino acids, oxalates, and glucosinolates. The varied chemical structure and composition of these metabolites which are diverse in their abundance in different plants and their products, result in an array of direct and indirect effects which impinge on animal productivity and health. They occur in various quantities in plants, with alkaloids as the most abundant in higher plants. Alkaloids are among the most important drugs used by human beings and have also been adjudged to be the most useful and most dangerous products of nature. The effects of these anti-nutrients may be physical such as alopecia or physiological such as disruption of metabolic reactions and synthesis of important biochemical components of tissues. Their structures, occurrence, effects, and other related issues are reviewed herein. Keywords: Secondary metabolites, Anti-nutritional factors, Animal Feedstuffs, Molecular and Cellular Targets, Phytoanticipins and Phytoalexins.

The Role of the γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) in Plant Salt Stress Tolerance

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a non-protein amino acid that accumulates in many plant species in response to environmental stress. A number of reverse-genetic experiments and omics analyses have revealed positive relationships between GABA levels and tolerance to stresses. Furthermore, the application of exogenous GABA has been demonstrated to effectively reduce ROS levels, enhance membrane stability and modulate phytohormones cross-talk, thus improving tolerance against multiple stresses. However, molecular mechanisms regulating GABA homeostasis and physiological functions in plants remain largely unclear. In this review, we focus on the recent achievements in deciphering the role of genetic manipulations to modulate endogenous GABA levels and the exogenous application of GABA and associated metabolites to improve tolerance to salt stress. Finally, we discuss the role of GABA in the regulation of ion homeostasis in high-salinity conditions. These findings have laid the groundwork for future studies to explore the genetic, physiological, and molecular mechanisms of GABA-mediated improvements in plant productivity under high-salt environmental conditions.

Invasive ant learning is not affected by seven potential neuroactive chemicals.

Argentine ants Linepithema humile are one of the most damaging invasive alien species worldwide. Enhancing or disrupting cognitive abilities, such as learning, has the potential to improve management efforts, for example by increasing preference for a bait, or improving ants' ability to learn its characteristics or location. Nectar-feeding insects are often the victims of psychoactive manipulation, with plants lacing their nectar with secondary metabolites such as alkaloids and non-protein amino acids which often alter learning, foraging, or recruitment. However, the effect of neuroactive chemicals has seldomly been explored in ants. Here, we test the effects of seven potential neuroactive chemicals-two alkaloids: caffeine and nicotine; two biogenic amines: dopamine and octopamine, and three nonprotein amino acids: β-alanine, GABA and taurine-on the cognitive abilities of invasive L. humile using bifurcation mazes. Our results confirm that these ants are strong associative learners, requiring as little as one experience to develop an association. However, we show no short-term effect of any of the chemicals tested on spatial learning, and in addition no effect of caffeine on short-term olfactory learning. This lack of effect is surprising, given the extensive reports of the tested chemicals affecting learning and foraging in bees. This mismatch could be due to the heavy bias towards bees in the literature, a positive result publication bias, or differences in methodology.

Determination of Multiclass Cyanotoxins in Blue-Green Algae (BGA) Dietary Supplements Using Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

In recent years, the consumption of blue-green algae (BGA) dietary supplements is increasing because of their health benefits. However, cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins, which present serious health risks. In this work we propose hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) to determine cyanotoxins in BGA dietary supplements. Target toxins, including microcystin-leucine-arginine (MC-LR) and microcystin-arginine-arginine (MC-RR), nodularin, anatoxin-a and three non-protein amino acids, β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) and N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG), were separated using a SeQuant ZIC-HILIC column. Cyanotoxin extraction was based on solid-liquid extraction (SLE) followed by a tandem-solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure using Strata-X and mixed-mode cation-exchange (MCX) cartridges. The method was validated for BGA dietary supplements obtaining quantification limits from 60 to 300 µg·kg-1. Nine different commercial supplements were analyzed, and DAB, AEG, and MCs were found in some samples, highlighting the relevance of monitoring these substances as precaution measures for the safe consumption of these products.

5-Aminolaevulinic acid reduced the mortality of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei infected with Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei

Hepatopancreatic microsporidiosis, the shrimp disease caused by Enterocytozoon hepatopenaei (EHP) infection, has been widely spread in farmed Litopenaeus vannamei in Thailand. The symptoms include decreased feeding, muscle waste, slow growth, and chronic mortality. Since 5-aminolaevulinic acid (5-ALA), a non-protein amino acid, has been known to enhance ATP production in the cell through the increased formation of hemoproteins in the electron transport complex of mitochondria, it was hypothesized that providing 5-ALA to EHP-infected shrimp might reduce the mortality caused by the infection. Naturally EHP-infected L. vannamei were randomly sampled from a commercial shrimp pond that showed signs of hepatopancreatic microsporidiosis. The shrimp samples were reared under 30-ppt seawater in 40-L plastic tanks, divided into four groups; each receiving commercial pellets supplemented with different doses of 5-ALA: 0 (control), 15, 30, and 60 ppm. After 21 days of the experiment, it was found that the shrimp receiving 5-ALA at 60 ppm survived at a rate significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of other groups, and had a significant increase in biomass, compared with that of the control group. Histology of the hepatopancreas of the 60-ppm group revealed significantly (p < 0.01) less percentage of atrophic tubules and larger areas of the vacuoles of the B-cells, suggesting improved hepatopancreatic functions. The levels of the EHP load in the hepatopancreas as revealed by semi-quantitative PCR were increasing in a dose-related manner of 5-ALA supplement. Histology of the hepatopancreas also revealed the presence of EHP. The ATP levels in the hepatopancreas of the 30- and 60-ppm groups were significantly (p < 0.01) higher than that of the control group. Further tests are required in commercial farms to find out if the 5-ALA supplement is beneficial to tackle the problem of hepatopancreatic microsporidiosis at the industrial level.

Secondary Metabolites in Nectar-Mediated Plant-Pollinator Relationships.

In recent years, our understanding of the complex chemistry of floral nectar and its ecological implications for plant-pollinator relationships has certainly increased. Nectar is no longer considered merely a reward for pollinators but rather a plant interface for complex interactions with insects and other organisms. A particular class of compounds, i.e., nectar secondary compounds (NSCs), has contributed to this new perspective, framing nectar in a more comprehensive ecological context. The aim of this review is to draft an overview of our current knowledge of NSCs, including emerging aspects such as non-protein amino acids and biogenic amines, whose presence in nectar was highlighted quite recently. After considering the implications of the different classes of NSCs in the pollination scenario, we discuss hypotheses regarding the evolution of such complex nectar profiles and provide cues for future research on plant-pollinator relationships.

Application of gamma-aminobutyric acid and nitric oxide on turfgrass stress resistance: Current knowledge and perspectives

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a nonprotein amino acid that is well recognized as an endogenous plant signaling molecule. Nitric Oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule that has diverse biological functions in plants. There has been increasing research evidence that elucidates the protective roles of GABA and NO in improving plant growth and abiotic stress resistance of turfgrass species through enhancing photosynthetic and antioxidant defense capacities, maintenance of membrane integrity, osmotic adjustment and ion hemostasis, and increasing gene and protein expressions and accumulation of certain metabolites. Furthermore, the crosstalk between GABA and NO for modulating stress response are of interests in recent years. This review summarizes the current research advances of the physiological and molecular mechanisms involved in GABA- and NO- mitigated abiotic stress effects and discusses knowledge gaps in exploiting role of GABA an NO in turfgrass stress resistance. The review aims at promoting future research work towards a deeper understanding of GABA and NO applications in enhancing turfgrass management, production, and environmental adaptation.

Evaluation of Plasma Homocysteine Levels in Type II Diabetes and Hypertensive Patients Attending University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, Nigeria

Background: Homocysteine is an important non-protein amino acid, very useful in all methylation reactions occurring in the body as the precursor of the sole methyl group donor S-Adenosyl-methionine (SAM). However, elevated plasma homocysteine levels have been reported to contribute to epithelial damage leading to coronary artery disease and other metabolic syndromes. This study was aimed at evaluating the concentration of plasma homocysteine in diabetics and hypertensive patients in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Methods: The study population included 60 Type II diabetes mellitus and Hypertensivesubjectsas group (I), 60 Type II diabetes mellitus and Normotensive subjects as group (II), 60 Hypertensive subjects as group (III), and 60 healthy subjects as control group within the age range of 30 - 70 years. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used to quantitatively measure homocysteine in the serum sample, glycated haemoglobin were determined quantitatively using sandwich immunodetection and blood pressure was determined using mercury sphygnanometer. Statistics: The statistical analysis was done using GraphPad Prism version 9.4.1, and statistical significance was determined by a P < 0.05. Results: The results showed significantly higher plasma homocysteine levels in diabetics and hypertensive comorbidity patients when compared to healthy controls, P < 0.013. There was also a significant increase in plasma homocysteine levels in the comorbidity and hypertensives single morbidity, P < 0.0001 and also diabetes single morbidity, but there was no significant difference from the levels in the diabetics and hypertensives single morbidity. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between groups in terms of age range or duration of diagnosis. Conclusion: Our result shows an increase in plasma homocysteine levels in diabetics and hypertensives when compared to controls, and comorbidity instigates a higher increase in plasma levels when compared with the single morbidity.

Strategies for improvement of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) biosynthesis via lactic acid bacteria (LAB) fermentation.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a non-protein amino acid widely distributed in nature and extensively explored for its numerous physiological functions and effects on metabolic disorders. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are one of the most important GABA producers, vigorously pursued due to their high GABA content and generally regarded as safe (GRAS) status that allows for direct formulation in various GABA-enriched food products. To meet the strict requirements of the food and nutraceutical industries, the biosynthesis of GABA is typically preferred over the chemical synthesis route. The production of GABA varies among various strains of LAB and is affected by different fermentation conditions. Hence, optimizing the fermentation conditions to enhance the activity of the key enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase is essential to maximize GABA production. This paper reviews the beneficial effects of GABA on human health and its applications in fermented food products. A particular emphasis is given to the biosynthetic approach for producing GABA by various LAB species via the microbial fermentation route. Efficient strategies for enhancing GABA production through optimization of the fermentation conditions, mode of fermentation, two-step fermentation, co-culturing approach, immobilization technique and genetic engineering are discussed in detail.

The use of L-carnitine in male reproductive abnormalities: The available evidence

Dietary health supplements have been increasingly used in the prevention and treatment of chronic disorders. During the previous decades, l-carnitine has been reported to have beneficial effects on male reproductive functions. L-carnitine, a non-protein amino acid produced endogenously in the human body from the essential amino acids lysine and methionine or obtained from exogenous dietary sources. The main natural forms of L-carnitine are Acetyl-L-carnitine and propionyl-L-carnitine. The aim of this paper is to review l-carnitine research findings relevant to its use in male reproductive abnormalities. Treatment of reproductive male abnormalities caused by abnormalities of idiopathic semen quality including oligozoospermia, asthenospermia, and azoospermia include hormonal therapies (Clomiphene citrate, tamoxifen, recombinant FSH, and testosterone undecanoate). Non-hormonal therapies include pentoxifylline, and dietary health supplements including carnitine. Carnitine has the additional advantage of improving associated erectile dysfunction. Conclusion: There is convincing research evidence suggesting that l-carnitine can improve male reproductive and can be useful in the treatment of some form’s male infertility and erectile dysfunction.

Biuret toxicity induces accumulation of nitrogen-rich compounds in rice plants

AimsExcess biuret, a common impurity in urea fertilizers, is toxic to plants. Little is known about the mechanisms of biuret toxicity in plants. This study aimed to investigate the accumulation of biuret and the changes in metabolites in rice (Oryza sativa) plants under biuret toxicity.MethodsA previous study had shown that transgenic rice plants overexpressing bacterial biuret hydrolase had improved biuret tolerance. Here, we grew wild-type and bacterial biuret hydrolase-overexpressing rice plants in hydroponics at different biuret levels. Concentrations of biuret and allantoin, a nitrogenous intermediate in the purine degradation pathway, in the plants were determined. The expression levels of genes related to purine degradation and ureide metabolisms were analyzed using wild-type plants. Additionally, we performed a metabolome analysis using rice suspension cells.ResultsThe biuret hydrolase-overexpressing plants did not contain biuret, whereas wild-type plants accumulated biuret in shoots in the order of mmol L−1 tissue water. The concentration of allantoin in shoots of wild-type plants under biuret toxicity was higher than those in control conditions. Inhibition of allantoinase activity by biuret was not detected, and allantoin accumulation appeared to be associated with changes in the expression of allantoinase, allantoate amidohydrolase and putative allantoin transporter genes. Furthermore, another nitrogenous compound citrulline, which is a non-protein amino acid, accumulated in rice suspension cells under biuret toxicity.ConclusionThe accumulation of these compounds suggests that rice plants subjected to biuret toxicity need to reduce the concentration of surplus ammonium ions via synthesizing nitrogen-rich compounds.

L-Theanine Regulates the Abundance of Amino Acid Transporters in Mice Duodenum and Jejunum via the mTOR Signaling Pathway

The intestine is a key organ for the absorption of amino acids. L-theanine (LTA) is a structural analog of glutamine and a characteristic non-protein amino acid found in tea (Camellia sinensis) that regulates lipid and protein metabolism. The present study explored the role of LTA in intestinal amino acid absorption, protein synthesis, and its mechanisms. Overall, our findings suggest that LTA supplementation not only affects serum alkaline phosphatase (AKP), total protein (TP), and urea nitrogen (BUN) levels, but it also upregulates the mRNA and protein expression of amino acid transporters (EAAT3, EAAT1, 4F2hc, y+LAT1, CAT1, ASCT2, and B0AT1), and activates the mTOR signaling pathway. The downstream S6 and S6K1 proteins are regulated, and the expression of amino acid transporters is regulated. These findings suggest that LTA increases intestinal AA absorption, promotes protein metabolism, and increases nitrogen utilization by upregulating AAT expression, activating the mTOR signaling pathway, and phosphorylating the mTOR downstream proteins S6 and S6K1.

Recent advances of γ-aminobutyric acid: Physiological and immunity function, enrichment, and metabolic pathway.

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a non-protein amino acid which naturally and widely occurs in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of mammals, it has become a popular dietary supplement and has promising application in food industry. The current article reviews the most recent literature regarding the physiological functions, preparation methods, enrichment methods, metabolic pathways, and applications of GABA. This review sheds light on developing GABA-enriched plant varieties and food products, and provides insights for efficient production of GABA through synthetic biology approaches.

The Role of γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) in the Occurrence of Adventitious Roots and Somatic Embryos in Woody Plants.

The occurrence of adventitious roots and somatic embryos is a crucial step in micropropagation that frequently limits the application of this technique in woody plants. Recent studies demonstrated that they can be negatively or positively regulated with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is a four-carbon non-proteinous amino acid that not only acts as a main inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammals. It has been reported that GABA affects plant growth and their response to stress although its mode of action is still unclear. This review dealt with the effects of GABA on adventitious root formation and growth as well as on somatic embryogenesis. Furthermore, we focused on discussing the interaction of GABA with phytohormones, such as auxin, ethylene, abscisic acid, and gibberellin, as well as with the carbon and nitrogen metabolism during adventitious root development. We suggested that research on GABA will contribute to the application of micropropagation in the recalcitrant fruit and forest species.

Extraction of Non-Protein Amino Acids from Cyanobacteria for Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis.

Non-protein amino acids (NPAAs) are a large class of amino acids (AAs) that are not genetically encoded for translation into proteins. The analysis of NPAAs can provide crucial information about cellular uptake and/or function, metabolic pathways, and potential toxicity. β-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is a neurotoxic NPAA produced by various algae species and is associated with an increased risk for neurodegenerative diseases, which has led to significant research interest. There are numerous ways to extract AAs for analysis, with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry being the most common, requiring protein precipitation followed by acid hydrolysis of the protein pellet. Studies on the presence of BMAA in algal species provide contradictory results, with the use of unvalidated sample preparation/extraction and analysis a primary cause. Like most NPAAs, protein precipitation in 10% aqueous TCA and hydrolysis with fuming HCl is the most appropriate form of extraction for BMAA and its isomers aminoethylglycine (AEG) and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (2,4-DAB). The present protocol describes the steps in a validated NPAA extraction method commonly used in research and teaching laboratories.

Extraction of Non-Protein Amino Acids from Cyanobacteria for Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analysis

Extraction Non Protein Amino Acids From Cyanobacteria For Liquid - Video. JoVE publishes peer-reviewed scientific video protocols to accelerate biological, medical, chemical and physical research. Watch our scientific video articles. JoVE is the world-leading producer and provider of science videos with the mission to improve scientific research, scientific journals, and education. Millions of scientists, educators and students at thousands of universities, colleges, hospitals and biopharmaceutical companies worldwide use JoVE for their research, teaching and learning.