Non-native Speakers Of German Research Articles

Embodied cognition in native and foreign language – evidence from a typing task

ABSTRACT This study explores embodied cognition by examining the interplay between psycholinguistic features and motor processes in written language reproduction. We investigated whether previously observed effects (such as verb type and sentence structure influencing motor performance) in native languages also occur in non-native languages, shedding light on sensorimotor grounding across languages. A typing task assessed two phenomena: the manual action verb phenomenon and the negation phenomenon, both known to affect motor planning and performance. Experiment 1 involved native speakers, while Experiment 2 involved non-native speakers of German. We found interference effects (but no facilitation) for manual action verbs compared to non-action verbs in both speaker groups. Results for the negation paradigm were ambiguous and were influenced by syntactic operators. Our findings suggest similar sensorimotor grounding for native and foreign languages, contributing to research on embodied cognition in foreign language contexts. Methodological challenges and future research implications are discussed.

Mental representation of words and concepts in late multilingualism

Abstract Speakers of multiple languages must store the respective lexical items efficiently to enable correct access. Importantly, all items must be linked to semantic information and world knowledge. One prominent model of the mental lexicon of late bilinguals is the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994), which postulates bidirectional but asymmetrical connections between separate stores for L1 (native language) and L2 (second/foreign language), and a shared conceptual store. Using German native speakers with advanced English proficiency, Experiment 1 largely confirmed model predictions regarding different preferred mental routes and processing times depending on translation direction. Moreover, the original design was extended by including abstract stimuli and picture naming in L2. A series of additional measures, such as proficiency and age of acquisition, served to specify the language experience of the participants and made it possible to compare the results with a group of non-native speakers of German (Experiment 2). Interestingly, the results suggest that the model also applies to two or more non-native languages, potentially influenced by the experimental and environmental language context.

Morphological and semantic priming in word recognition

Word recognition is investigated along with semantic priming. While semantic priming has received attention among scholars investigating language processing in the last five decades, the literature lacks an investigation of semantic priming in word recognition among native and non-native German-speakers. To investigate the differences in how native speakers (L1) and non-native speakers (L2) of recognize words, and their corresponding speed, we designed two experiments consisting of two conditions; when the primes are associated with the target word, and when the primes are not related to the target word. For the semantic category, identical conditions were designed; when the primes are associated with the target word, and when they are not related to the target word. Reaction Time (RT) and accuracy were obtained during the experiments on both groups (L1 and L2). The experiment was controlled by the DMDX software package. The results indicate that there are no such differences among native speakers(L1) and non-native speakers of the German language unless in individual choices. There are similarities among first language speakers (L1) and second language speakers (L2) in both categoriesــــmorphology and semantics. The delay would occur when non-native speakers see a word in morphological and semantic priming.

Social inequalities in early childhood language development during the COVID-19 pandemic: a descriptive study with data from three consecutive school entry surveys in Germany

BackgroundSocial health inequalities are still of great public health importance in modern societies. The COVID-19 pandemic may have affected social inequalities in people's health due to containment measures. As these measures particularly affected children, they might have been particularly vulnerable to increased social inequalities. The aim of the study was to describe health inequalities during the pandemic based on language delay (LD) in children in order to inform public health interventions for a population at risk of long-term health and education inequalities.MethodsData of 5–7 year old children from three consecutive school entry surveys in the German federal state of Brandenburg were used, including data compulsorily collected before the pandemic (2018/2019: n = 19,299), at the beginning of the pandemic (2019/2020: n = 19,916) and during the pandemic (2020/2021: n = 19,698). Bivariate and multivariate binary regression analyses [OR, 95% CI] cross-sectionally examined the relationship between the prevalence of LD [yes/no] and social inequalities, operationalized by family socioeconomic position [SEP low/middle/high], migration background [native-German language/non-native German language] and length of kindergarten attendance [< 4 years/ ≥ 4 years]. Factors contributing to inequality in LD were examined by socioeconomic stratification.ResultsCross-sectionally, LD prevalence has decreased overall (2018/2019: 21.1%, 2019/2020: 19.2%, 2020/2021: 18.8%), and among children from both high SEP and native German-speaking families. As LD prevalence increased among children from families with low SEP and remained stable among non-native German speakers, social inequalities in LD prevalence increased slightly during the pandemic i) by low SEP (2018/2019: OR = 4.41, 3.93–4.94; 2020/2021: OR = 5.12, 4.54–5.77) and ii) by non-German native language (2018/2019: OR = 2.22, 1.86–2.66; 2020/2021: OR = 2.54, 2.19–2.95). During the pandemic, both migration background and kindergarten attendance determined LD prevalence in the high and middle SEP strata. However, the measured factors did not contribute to LD prevalence in children from families with low SEP.ConclusionSocial inequalities in LD increased due to opposing trends in prevalence comparing low and high SEP families. To promote health equity across the life course, early childhood should be of interest for tailored public health actions (e.g. through targeted interventions for kindergarten groups). Further analytical studies should investigate determinants (e.g., parental investment).

Bildgrammatik. Gebrauch der Visualisierungen in den Lerner-Grammatiken der deutschen Sprache

This paper analyses the role of visualisations in grammar books for learners of German as a foreign language. It evaluates a sample of grammar books self-labelled as pictorial as well as other grammar books designated for non-native speakers of German. The analysis focuses not only on pictures, but on all the visual means that grammars use to convey grammatical rules. The aim of the study is to provide a better understanding of didactic and cognitive-linguistic aspects of the grammar transmission. In order to do so, it inquires into the usage of visual metaphors and mnemonic devices. Though the benefits of such types of visualisations have repeatedly been proven, they appear only seldom in the analysed grammar books as most of the visualisations depict only the semantics of example sentences. The article presents concrete cases to illustrate both problematic uses of visualisations and examples of good practice that can serve not only as a starting point for further didactic contributions in this field but also as suggestions for teachers of German or authors of teaching materials.

The Influence of Age on Eye Movements during Reading in Early Elementary School Children.

Eye movement disorders have been observed in many eye diseases, such as amblyopia and developmental dyslexia. The detection of pathological eye movement behaviour is difficult and requires more data for comparison. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of age, school level, gender, and mother tongue on eye movements while reading. One hundred and twenty-seven normally sighted children aged 7 - 12 were recruited from grades 2 - 5. The children were asked to read aloud two texts of The New International Reading Speed Text (IReST) of similar difficulty. Eye movements while reading were recorded by eyetracking technology (SMI RED 250, SensoMotoric Instruments, Teltow, Germany). The eye movement parameters were obtained from 118 children, and reading speed (words/minute), number of saccades, number of fixations, reading errors, and influence of school grade were analyzed. We showed a significant influence of age in all eye movement parameters. The main finding of this study is that younger children performed more saccades, a higher number of fixations per word, and more reading errors while taking more time to read the text than older children in higher grades. In early grades, non-native German speakers read more slowly and performed more saccades and fixations, but no more differences were seen by grade 5. Overall, there was no significant influence of gender or school system on reading parameters. This study highlights the need for an age-appropriate normative database for eye movements during reading.

Лингвокультурная детерминация немецкоязычного научного лингвистического дискурса (жанр «научная статья»)

The research focuses on the relevant linguistic problem of scientific texts genre organization analysis aimed at identification of their common and distinctive features in different languages, and specifics of their linguistic means determination. The article represents the peculiarities of research paper carried out in the frameworks of German scientific discourse by a native German speaker and a non-native one. The research material is comprised of the German-language scientific articles on linguistics published in the collection of scientific works of an international conference. Three categories of scientific articles underwent the analysis: the article written by a native German speaker; the article written by a non-native German speaker; the co-authored article by native and non-native German speakers. The text array of the considered discourse has been studied in order to identify structural and verbal peculiarities of the text of scientific article, written by the representatives of different linguacultures – a native or a non-native speaker. Similarities and differences in dictum and modus components, thematic affiliation, research paradigm are established. The communicative purpose, the image of the author and the addressee, the elements of formal organization of the scientific text are determined. The most frequent verbal means, which indicate discursive parameters of a scientific article, are revealed. The analysis showed significant divergences in the use of linguistic means. The author argues that the articles of non-native German speakers demonstrate grammatical and genre interference of their native language: the author of a scientific publication in a foreign language applies linguistic means peculiar to the language system of the native language and adjusts their use to the genre conventions of the native language. It signifies linguacultural determination of scientific discourse and holds out prospects for further studies.

Binding Out of Relative Clauses in Native and Non-native Sentence Comprehension

Pronouns can sometimes covary with a non c-commanding quantifier phrase (QP). To obtain such 'telescoping' readings, a semantic representation must be computed in which the QP's semantic scope extends beyond its surface scope. Non-native speakers have been claimed to have more difficulty than native speakers deriving such non-isomorphic syntax-semantics mappings, but evidence from processing studies is scarce. We report the results from an eye-movement monitoring experiment and an offline questionnaire investigating whether native and non-native speakers of German can link personal pronouns to non c-commanding QPs inside relative clauses. Our results show that both participant groups were able to obtain telescoping readings offline, but only the native speakers showed evidence of forming telescoping dependencies during incremental parsing. During processing the non-native speakers focused on a discourse-prominent, non-quantified alternative antecedent instead. The observed group differences indicate that non-native comprehenders have more difficulty than native comprehenders computing scope-shifted representations in real time.

Non-native speaker pause patterns closely correspond to those of native speakers at different speech rates.

When speaking a foreign language, non-native speakers can typically be readily identified by their accents. But which aspects of the speech signal determine such accents? Speech pauses occur in all languages but may nonetheless vary in different languages with regard to their duration, number or positions in the speech stream, and therefore are one potential contributor to foreign speech production. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate whether non-native speakers pause ‘with a foreign accent’. We recorded native English speakers and non-native speakers of German or Serbo-Croatian with excellent English reading out an English text at three different speech rates, and analyzed their vocal output in terms of number, duration and location of pauses. Overall, all non-native speakers were identified by native raters as having non-native accents, but native and non-native speakers made pauses that were similarly long, and had similar ratios of pause time compared to total speaking time. Furthermore, all speakers changed their pausing behavior similarly at different speech rates. The only clear difference between native and non-native speakers was that the latter made more pauses than the native speakers. Thus, overall, pause patterns contributed little to the acoustic characteristics of speakers’ non-native accents, when reading aloud. Non-native pause patterns might be acquired more easily than other aspects of pronunciation because pauses are perceptually salient and producing pauses is easy. Alternatively, general cognitive processing mechanisms such as attention, planning or memory may constrain pausing behavior, allowing speakers to transfer their native pause patterns to a second language without significant deviation. We conclude that pauses make a relatively minor contribution to the acoustic characteristics of non-native accents.

The role of native and non-native grammars in the comprehension of possessive pronouns

Previous studies have shown that multilingual speakers are influenced by their native (L1) and non-native (L2) grammars when learning a new language. But, so far, these studies have mostly used untimed metalinguistic tasks. Here we examine whether multilinguals’ prior grammars also affect their sensitivity to morphosyntactic constraints during processing. We use speeded judgment and self-paced reading tasks to examine the comprehension of German possessive pronouns. To investigate whether native and non-native grammars differentially affect participants’ performance, we compare two groups of non-native German speakers with inverse L1–L2 distributions: a group with L1 Spanish – L2 English, and a group with L1 English – L2 Spanish. We show that the reading profiles of both groups are modulated by their L1 grammar, with L2 proficiency selectively affecting participants’ judgment accuracy but not their reading times. We propose that reading comprehension is mainly influenced by multilinguals’ native grammar, but that knowledge of an L2 grammar can further increase sensitivity to morphosyntactic violations in an additional language.

Cataphoric pronoun resolution in native and non-native sentence comprehension

Abstract Encountering a cataphoric pronoun triggers a search for a suitable referent. Previous research indicates that this search is constrained by binding Condition C, which prohibits coreference between a cataphoric pronoun and a referential expression within its c-command domain. We report the results from a series of eye-movement monitoring and questionnaire experiments investigating cataphoric pronoun resolution in German. Given earlier findings suggesting that the application of structure-sensitive constraints on reference resolution may be delayed in non-native language processing, we tested both native and proficient non-native speakers of German. Our results show that cataphoric pronouns trigger an active search in both native and non-native comprehenders. Whilst both participant groups demonstrated awareness of Condition C in an offline task, we found Condition C effects to be restricted to later processing measures during online reading. This indicates that during natural reading, Condition C applies as a relatively late filter on potential coreference assignments.

Agreement attraction in native and nonnative speakers of German

ABSTRACTSecond language speakers often struggle to apply grammatical constraints such as subject–verb agreement. One hypothesis for this difficulty is that it results from problems suppressing syntactically unlicensed constituents in working memory. We investigated which properties of these constituents make them more likely to elicit errors: their grammatical distance to the subject head or their linear distance to the verb. We used double modifier constructions (e.g., the smell of the stables of the farmers), where the errors of native speakers are modulated by the linguistic relationships between the nouns in the subject phrase: second plural nouns, which are syntactically and semantically closer to the subject head, elicit more errors than third plural nouns, which are linearly closer to the verb (2nd-3rd-noun asymmetry). In order to dissociate between grammatical and linear distance, we compared embedded and coordinated modifiers, which were linearly identical but differed in grammatical distance. Using an attraction paradigm, we showed that German native speakers and proficient Russian speakers of German exhibited similar attraction rates and that their errors displayed a 2nd-3rd-noun asymmetry, which was more pronounced in embedded than in coordinated constructions. We suggest that both native and second language learners prioritize linguistic structure over linear distance in their agreement computations.

Rethinking perceptions of fluency

Abstract The term “fluency” is used in two different ways in relation to second language speech. Whereas laypeople often equate fluency with proficiency in a given language, researchers define fluency as a speaker’s ease or fluidity in producing spoken language at a specific time point. This discrepancy in definitions has been problematic, especially when relying on ratings provided by naïve raters. This study seeks to determine whether “fluency” ratings differ from “fluidity” ratings assigned to 48 speech stimuli produced by native and non-native speakers of German. Samples were rated by participants from three distinct listener groups: native German listeners, second language (L2) German listeners, and non-speakers of German. On the surface, results reveal no significant differences along the two continua (“fluency” or “fluidity”). All groups rated native speakers as more fluent, and second language listeners were harshest in their ratings. Nonetheless, L2 listeners who rated speech samples along the “fluency” scale relied upon speech measures not associated with ease of speaking when compared with L2 listeners who rated the same samples for “fluidity.” Although listeners in all groups were most sensitive to speakers’ speech rate and use of filled pauses, native listeners and non-speakers relied more on temporal measures when they rated speech along the “fluidity” scale. These combined results thus indicate that “fluidity” may be the better term to use in future research relying on naïve listeners’ ratings of perceived fluency.

The impact of focus on pronoun resolution in native and non-native sentence comprehension

Non-native speakers’ sensitivity to discourse-level cues in pronoun interpretation has not been widely researched. We carried out three antecedent-choice questionnaire experiments which investigate the impact of focus on within-sentence pronoun resolution in native and non-native speakers of German and native speakers of Russian. Focus was realized via cleft structures and focus-sensitive particles (FSPs). Findings show a clear difference between native and non-native speakers that is not attributable to first language (L1) influence. Native speakers of German and Russian were less likely to resolve the pronoun to an antecedent in focus via a cleft compared to a non-focused antecedent in the same position (the ‘anti-focus effect’). Unlike the native speakers, non-native speakers did not show an anti-focus effect with clefts but showed a tendency to resolve a pronoun to an antecedent appearing with an FSP. We argue that non-native speakers do not always complete a detailed analysis of the information structural cues when seeking an antecedent and may instead be influenced by surface-level cues that highlight certain antecedents.

Sensitivity to Crossover Constraints During Native and Non-native Pronoun Resolution.

We report the results from two experiments examining native and non-native German speakers' sensitivity to crossover constraints on pronoun resolution. Our critical stimuli sentences contained personal pronouns in either strong (SCO) or weak crossover (WCO) configurations. Using eye-movement monitoring during reading and a gender-mismatch paradigm, Experiment 1 investigated whether a fronted wh-phrase would be considered as a potential antecedent for a pronoun intervening between the wh-phrase and its canonical position. Both native and non-native readers initially attempted coreference in WCO but not in SCO configurations, as evidenced by early gender-mismatch effects in our WCO conditions. Experiment 2 was an offline antecedent judgement task whose results mirrored the SCO/WCO asymmetry observed in our reading-time data. Taken together, our results show that the SCO constraint immediately restricts pronoun interpretation in both native and non-native comprehension, and further suggest that SCO and WCO constraints derive from different sources.

Refining questionnaire-based assessment of STEM students’ learning strategies

Learning strategies are considered a key aspect for academic performance not only for science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) students. Refining their assessment thus constitutes a worthwhile research purpose. The aim of this study is to examine the 69-item LIST questionnaire (ZDDP 15:185-200, 1994) with the aim of shortening it while keeping its factor structure and thus its potential for describing learning behaviour and for identifying significant changes therein. This includes exploring if reduced scales remain internally reliable, both in terms of reliability measures and content, and to examine if they stay sensitive enough to capture developments in a pre-post design. Our cohorts consist of STEM students (N = 2374) from different engineering courses at Ruhr-Universitat Bochum in Germany, typically predominantly males, some with insufficient background in mathematics or non-native speakers of German. The data was analysed using various statistic methods, e.g. reliability measurement and confirmatory factor analysis. Our findings show that about half of the original items (36 out of 69) are sufficient, reliability holds (Cronbach’s α > 0.7) and more variance is explained (56.17 % as compared to 45.65 %). Most content-related changes occurring when eliminating so many items survive critical scrutiny. The study shows that it is possible to refine and considerably shorten the LIST questionnaire to the effect that all but one factor are kept intact. This will simplify future research enormously. Furthermore, the refined factor structure suggests reconsidering the postulate of metacognition as an easily accessed facet of learning behaviour—thus implying promising research perspectives.

The constructional patterns of L2 German meteorological events by native French-, Dutch- and Italian-speaking L1 learners

AbstractWeather expressions can be seen as a relevant topic in foreign language (FL) teaching. Traditional teaching methodology focuses on fixed FL expressions like impersonal verbs discarding both the rich array of verbal and nominal constructions for typical weather states, as well as the learners’ needs for their production. Construction grammar may fill this gap in two respects, by focusing on weather expressions produced by second language learners (L2). This study describes: (1) the variation in the preferred L2 constructional patterns for weather forecasts in three samples of non-native speakers of German (French, Italian and Dutch); (2) an inventory of constructional and associated lexical deficits in German-L2, compared to the participants’ L1. Descriptive results lead to constructional recommendations for language pedagogy of L2 German.From a contrastive perspective, we explore the influence of L1- on L2- constructions, in order to show possible learner interferences. More specifically, we contrast the Dutch learners as representatives of a Germanic language, with the speakers of the Romance languages. Finally, we propose some guidelines for construction-based teaching as an alternative to the conventional lexical approach to meteorological expressions.

Your language or mine? or English as a lingua franca? Comparing effectiveness in English as a lingua franca and L1–L2 interactions: implications for corporate language policies

For multinational corporations, the need for efficiency and control has motivated the choice for a corporate language. However, increasing internationalisation has forced corporations to rethink their language policies to cater to the changing demands of the multicultural and multilingual workplace. This paper explores two related issues. First, it addresses the influence of mode of communication (English as a Lingua Franca [ELF] vs. L1–L2 interactions) on task efficiency. Second, it investigates the use of communication strategies in the different types of interactions (ELF vs. L1–L2). In a within-subject experimental design, the present study explores the effectiveness of language use in dyadic, computer-mediated communication between non-native speakers of English (ELF) and native and non-native speakers of German and Dutch (L1–L2). In three consecutive chat sessions, 60 participants performed a problem-solving task in English, German or Dutch. Findings indicate that in L1–L2 interactions, the participants were more effective in realising communicative goals than in ELF interactions, and that participants made use of different communication strategies in L1–L2 interactions than in ELF interactions. Consequently, international organisations which implement a corporate language may benefit from condoning multilingual practices on the work floor.

Comparing foreign accent in L1 attrition and L2 acquisition: Range and rater effects

This study examines the methodology of global foreign accent ratings in studies on L2 speech production. In three experiments, we test how variation in raters, range within speech samples, as well as instructions and procedures affects ratings of accent in predominantly monolingual speakers of German, non-native speakers of German, as well as long-term emigrants from Germany, that is, L1 attriters. The findings show that rater differences do not result in systematic changes in rating patterns. In contrast, range effects and effects of familiarity with accented speech lead to shifts in absolute and relative ratings. Including more strongly foreign-accented samples leads to lower judgements for the entire group of L2 speakers compared to natives. Similarly, lower familiarity with foreign accent results in more variable and more strongly foreign-accented judgements. We discuss the implications for research on L2 pronunciation as well as for the interpretation of nativeness in L2 studies and language testing more generally.

Listening to German Native and Non-native Speakers: An Evaluation of Students’ Comprehension

Acquiring the German language in a non-native environment is a challenge to the students in UKM because the surroundings do not promote a conducive atmosphere for the students to communicate in the language. The students rely solely on their time in class to practice the four skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. One of the most problematic skills to acquire is listening as the students are exposed to native German speakers only from the listening CD accompanying the text book ‘Studio D’. The previous research conducted by the instructor revealed that the students have difficulties in listening to native German speakers. However, the instructor could not determine whether articulation and accent of a native speaker, content difficulty or effect of background noise was the main factor leading to the problem. Thus, this research aims to evaluate the ability of the students to understand the dialogues spoken by native and non-native German speakers. For this research, authentic recordings of native and non-native speakers speaking were used as listening material. Students were divided into two groups: the first group listened to dialogues by native speakers and the second group listened to the same dialogue by non-native speakers. The students were then asked to answer multiple-choice and open task questions corresponding to the dialogues. It was found that the students who listened to the dialogues by non-native speakers performed slightly better. This suggests that the students‟ comprehension does not rely solely on native or non-native speakers but there are other contributing factors like contents and type of questions.