Non-medical Background Research Articles

The evaluation and analysis of irritable bowel syndrome-related short videos on social media (TikTok).

TikTok is one of the fastest growing social media platforms. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) has recently become a trending topic of interest among TikTok users. To better understand the quality and accuracy of information presented in the most popular IBS-relevant videos on TikTok. We reviewed videos with the tag 'IBS'. We excluded those not relevant to IBS or lasting <10 s or >10 min. Baseline characteristics about the videos were collected. Two independent reviewers assessed each video using DISCERN and Patient Education Materials and Assessment Tool (PEMAT) tools, two validated instruments to assess the quality of patient education materials. Of 100 videos, 33% were uploaded by participants with a defined medical background. The median DISCERN score of videos uploaded by participants with a medical background was 2.43 (2.00-3.10); from participants with a non-medical background, it was 1.37 (1.23-1.70) (p < 0.01). The median PEMAT Understandability scores of videos uploaded by participants with or without a medical background were 92.86 (86.61-95.00) and 80.95 (75.76-89.58), respectively (p < 0.01). The median PEMAT Actionability scores of videos uploaded by participants with or without a medical background were 100.00 (66.67-100.00) and 0.00, respectively (0.00-45.83; p < 0.01). Videos posted by medical professionals are easier to understand and to act on, and are more reliable and unbiased, and more likely to recommend shared decision making about treatment.

Do health-care institutions perform better under leaders with medical or non-medical backgrounds? A scoping review

PurposeThis study aims to summarize studies that compared the performance of health-care institutions led by leaders with medical background versus those with no medical background.Design/methodology/approachA systematic search was conducted on three databases: PubMed, Ovid Medline and Google Scholar to identify relevant peer-reviewed studies using the keywords “performance,” “impact,” “physician,” “medical,” “doctor,” “leader,” “healthcare institutions” and “hospital.” Only quantitative studies that compared the performance of health-care institutions led by leaders with medical background versus non-medical background were included. Articles were screened and assessed for eligibility before the relevant data were extracted to summarize, appraise and make a narrative account of the findings.FindingsA total of eight studies were included, four were based in the USA, two in the UK and one from Germany and one from the Arab World. Half of the studies (n = 4) reported overall better health-care institutional performance in terms of hospital quality ranking such as clinical effectiveness and patient safety under leaders with medical background, whereas one study showed poorer performance. The remaining studies reported mixed results among the different performance indicators, especially financial performance.Practical implicationsWhile medical background leaders may have an edge in clinical competence to manage health-care institutions, it will be beneficial to equip them with essential management skills to optimize leadership competence and enhance organizational performance.Originality/valueThe exclusive inclusion of quantitative empirical studies that compared health-care institutional performance medical and non-medical leaders provides a clearer link between the relationship between health-care institutional performance and the leaders’ background.

A Study on Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Related to Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Students of Nonmedical Background in Manipal, India.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are one of the major public health problems in India with adolescents being a vulnerable section of the affected population. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one in twenty adolescents contracts an STI every year, excluding the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other viral infections. It is important to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practices related to STIs among adolescents and young adults of non-medical backgrounds to educate them properly about protective and preventive measures and to allay misconceptions, if any. This is a cross-sectional study involving 507 engineering students who were asked to fill out the predesigned anonymous questionnaire form. Results were statistically analyzed and tabulated. Of the 507 students, 375 were males and 132 were females. The mean age of the patients was 20.5 years. HIV was the most commonly identified STI (94.2%), followed by herpes genitalis (76.5%). Around 97.4% and 85.7% identified the sexual route and blood transfusion as the modes of transmission of STIs, respectively. A total of 90.9% said that the Internet was their primary source of information regarding STIs. Infertility and cancer were identified as complications by 59.5% and 25% of them, respectively. Only 23.4% were aware of the National STI Control Program. The results with respect to attitudes and practices related to STIs were variable. Our study reflects that with change in time, the attitude of young adults toward sexuality is becoming very casual, but knowledge remains low. A lot of educational activities should be undertaken to educate our youth about various aspects of STIs and thus reduce the burden of the disease in the community.

Assessing capacities to strengthen intersectoral collaboration in Territorial Public Health Councils in the Republic of Moldova.

The government of the Republic of Moldova, endorsed the principle of Health in All Policies (HiAP) through its health sector reforms to address the rising burden of non-communicable diseases and health inequalities. Territorial Public Health Councils (TPHCs) were created to ensure the coordination and management of the population's health in their respective district. This study assessed the capacities of the TPHCs to identify areas in need of support for strengthening their intersectoral collaboration role in public health at local level. A mixed-method approach, using qualitative and quantitative techniques, was used to compare the perceptions of all TPHC members (n = 112) and invitees (n = 53) to council meetings from 10 districts covering all geographical areas of Moldova. The quantitative information was obtained using a cross-sectional survey, while the qualitative aspects were assessed within focus group discussions (FGDs). Half of all TPHC members, including 75% from groups with a non-medical background, did not attend a public health course within the last three years. Overall, groups with a medical background were more aware of the legislation that governs TPHC activity and intersectoral collaboration compared with those with a non-medical background. The FGDs of TPHC meetings revealed that members had an insufficient level of understanding of intersectoral collaboration to solve public health issues and lacked clarity about their place and role within the TPHC. HiAP implementation was found to be suboptimal with insufficient capacity at local level. TPHC members' ability to deal with public health issues were severely impaired by a general lack of knowledge and understanding of how to utilize the TPHC platform for maximum benefit. Reforming TPHC regulation is required in addition to extensive capacity building for TPHC members to increase member understanding of their roles as intended by TPHC regulations, including the facilitation of intersectoral collaborations.

Is medical leadership associated with better hospital management? Evidence from a structural analysis of hospitals in Germany

Background/Aims Excellent hospital leadership is essential for the delivery of high-quality care and financial viability of healthcare services. In Germany, the role of chief executive officer of a hospital can be held by an individual with a medical or non-medical background. This study explored the potential differences between the structural and financial parameters of hospitals, depending on the background of their chairperson or chief executive. Methods Publicly available data on financial and structural parameters for 178 hospitals in Germany from the years 2015, 2016 and 2017 were collected and mean values were calculated for all variables. Nearest-neighbour matching was performed to allow comparisons to be made between hospitals with medical and non-medical leadership. Results While the results showed no significant differences between leadership types in terms of financial results, the values for structural characteristics, especially staffing levels, number of inpatient cases and case mix index values, were significantly higher for hospitals with medical leadership versus non-medical leadership. Conclusions Hospital leadership structure is a crucial factor in organisational performance. The presence of a person with a medical background at the top level of hospital management can have a beneficial impact on the delivery of healthcare.

Awareness and attitude regarding eye donation among undergraduate students of an engineering institution and its implication in Tamil Nadu

Background: Corneal blindness is estimated to be the second most prevailing cause of blindness in developing nations. Visual rehabilitation by corneal transplantation is the main choice for the restoration of vision in these cases. The corneal transplant success relies on the availability of high-quality donor eyes. At present, there is a gap between the demand and supply of donor corneal tissues in the developing world. Our study aims to assess the awareness and willingness to eye donation among undergraduate students, especially those from a non-medical background. Methods: A single-center, cross-sectional study was conducted on engineering undergraduate students studying in a reputed Multi-disciplinary Institution, located in rural Tamil Nadu during the period August 2018 to March 2019 (8 months). Using random sampling, 507 students were selected for the study. A structured questionnaire was administered to all the participants. For statistical analysis, SPSS software, version 22, was used. Results: A total of 507 students participated in the study. The mean age of participants was 19 ± 2 years. In the study group, more than half (499) of the students had awareness about “eye donation,” but only 62.2% of students were willing to donate eyes. Among the study participants, 74% showed a poor attitude toward eye donation. Lack of knowledge regarding the process of eye donation was seen as the major cause attributing to this poor attitude. Conclusion: We conclude that if more intensive awareness program activities are carried out to make the younger generation, making them more aware of the process of eye donation, we can significantly increase the rate of eye donation in India.

COVID-19 challenges and management of human resource in health, Bhutan’s unique approach: Medical University’s contribution

In March 2020, the country saw its first case when a foreign tourist tested positive for COVID-19 at Thimphu. There was immediate activation of national preparedness and response plan including the requirements for surge in human resource capacity to handle the novel infection. One key emphasis of the national response was to support the existing 3500 health care workforce by partnering with community in sharing pandemic-related activities. One such initiative was training a pool of people to shoulder basic responsibilities at quarantine and non-hospital isolation facilities. Therefore, Khesar Gyalpo University of medical Sciences of Bhutan was tasked to develop a training program and thus the De-suup plus program was designed with focus on people from non-medical background. This article attempts to describe the development and implementation of the training. The training constituted basic nursing competencies, personal protective equipment and essential public health preventive measures with the purpose of serving at quarantine and non-hospital isolation facilities in the Country.

Cancer Prevention Diet: Assessment of Young Adults (20-29 Years) Knowledge, Dietary Habits and Practices

Promotion of a healthy lifestyle is an important part of cancer prevention. This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of young adults towards nutrition related to cancer prevention. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among a convenience sample of 150 participants. Knowledge, attitude and practices towards diet and health were evaluated by a questionnaire with open- and closed-ended questions. Likert scale was used to analyse the questions related to attitude and practice and was classified as seldom eaten (0-1 days/week), often eaten (2–3 days/week) and always eaten (4–7 days/week). The study confined to non-medical background adults, so as they don’t have medical knowledge related to the subject. The average age of the studied population was between 18-22 years from which 45% were male students and rest were females. Students belong to different religion and cultures. Nutrition knowledge of the studied population was good almost 68.34% students know that fruits and vegetables are a good source of vitamins and minerals and it also help in boosting immunity. The scoring on Likert scale indicate that students often eat diet which is rich in antioxidants and have less knowledge regarding the cancer prevention diet. Findings suggest that nutrition and health promoting programs need to be emphasised for promoting healthy lifestyle practices which help in combatting deadly diseases like Cancer. Adults need to have a better understanding so that a better and healthy future can lead to the development of the country.

The assessment of fundus image quality labeling reliability among graders with different backgrounds.

For the training of machine learning (ML) algorithms, correctly labeled ground truth data are inevitable. In this pilot study, we assessed the performance of graders with different backgrounds in the labeling of retinal fundus image quality. Color fundus photographs were labeled using a Python-based tool using four image categories: excellent (E), good (G), adequate (A) and insufficient for grading (I). We enrolled 8 subjects (4 with and 4 without medical background, groups M and NM, respectively) to whom a tutorial was presented on image quality requirements. We randomly selected 200 images from a pool of 18,145 expert-labeled images (50/E, 50/G, 50/A, 50/I). The performance of the grading was timed and the agreement was assessed. An additional grading round was performed with 14 labels for a more objective analysis. The median time (interquartile range) for the labeling task with 4 categories was 987.8 sec (418.6) for all graders and 872.9 sec (621.0) vs. 1019.8 sec (479.5) in the M vs. NM groups, respectively. Cohen's weighted kappa showed moderate agreement (0.564) when using four categories that increased to substantial (0.637) when using only three by merging the E and G groups. By the use of 14 labels, the weighted kappa values were 0.594 and 0.667 when assigning four or three categories, respectively. Image grading with a Python-based tool seems to be a simple yet possibly efficient solution for the labeling of fundus images according to image quality that does not necessarily require medical background. Such grading can be subject to variability but could still effectively serve the robust identification of images with insufficient quality. This emphasizes the opportunity for the democratization of ML-applications among persons with both medical and non-medical background. However, simplicity of the grading system is key to successful categorization.

Shattering Glass Ceilings: Three Black Women Surgeons Ascend to Chairs of Departments of Surgery.

Shattering Glass Ceilings: Three Black Women Surgeons Ascend to Chairs of Departments of Surgery.

VICTORIA: VIrtual neck Curve and True Ostium Reconstruction of Intracranial Aneurysms

PurposeFor the status evaluation of intracranial aneurysms (IAs), morphological and hemodynamic parameters can provide valuable information. For their extraction, a separation of the aneurysm sac from its parent vessel is required that yields the neck curve and the ostium. However, manual and subjective neck curve and ostium definitions might lead to inaccurate IA assessments.MethodsThe research project VICTORIA was initiated, allowing users to interactively define the neck curve of five segmented IA models using a web application. The submitted results were qualitatively and quantitatively compared to identify the minimum, median and maximum aneurysm surface area. Finally, image-based blood flow simulations were carried out to assess the effect of variable neck curve definitions on relevant flow- and shear-related parameters.ResultsIn total, 55 participants (20 physicians) from 18 countries participated in VICTORIA. For relatively simple aneurysms, a good agreement with respect to the neck curve definition was found. However, differences among the participants increased with increasing complexity of the aneurysm. Furthermore, it was observed that the majority of participants excluded any small arteries occurring in the vicinity of an aneurysm. This can lead to non-negligible deviations among the flow- and shear-related parameters, which need to be carefully evaluated, if quantitative analysis is desired. Finally, no differences between participants with medical and non-medical background could be observed.ConclusionsVICTORIAs findings reveal the complexity of aneurysm neck curve definition, especially for bifurcation aneurysms. Standardization appears to be mandatory for future sac-vessel-separations. For hemodynamic simulations a careful neck curve definition is crucial to avoid inaccuracies during the quantitative flow analysis.

A Cross Sectional Study to Assess the Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Toward COVID-19 among the Arts and Science Students in Farasan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a new variable of the Coro-naviridae family. COVID-19 spreads primarily by contacting the virus either from a COVID-19-infected individual through coughing or sneezing or from COVID-19-contaminated surfaces. A Descriptive cross-sectional survey of 200 participants was conducted to explore the awareness, attitude, and practice of COVID-19 among the arts and science students studying at the University College of Farasan. Results: Of all the participants, 58% showed a moderate level of awareness, 70% presented a high attitude, and 56% presented an adequate practice regarding COVID-19. Significant positive correlation between awareness-attitude (r = 0.156, p-value &lt; 0.001) and attitude-practice (r = 0.192, p-value &lt; 0.001) were found. The majority of students with non-medical background agreed that the patient with COVID-19 could remain asymptomatic (p &lt; 0.01) while considering the transmission route, the students from non-nursing background students were found more conscious (p &lt; 0.01) that infection could spread through personal contact, respiratory droplets and possibly by feces. Despite the moderate public awareness, their attitude and practice were better. Therefore, public awareness must be improved to be prepared for epidemic and pandemic situations.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Trends Towards Covid-19 Pandemic: Comparison Between Individuals with Medical and Non-Medical Backgrounds

Introduction: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious viral disease with high morbidity and mortality. Successful control of COVID-19 requires an approach of safety and cautious behavior of the general public as well as healthcare workers which can be attained by enhancing awareness based on scientific evidence.&#x0D; Aims &amp; Objectives: To assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of Covid-19 safety precautions in people with a medical and allied health background and compare them with non-medical people from the local population.&#x0D; Place and duration of study: Study was conducted at Central Park Medical College from July 2020 to September 2020.&#x0D; Material &amp; Methods: A total of 976 people participated in the study and were segregated into two groups; Group 1 (People having medical background; n=388) and Group 2 (People having non-medical background; n=588) to compare KAP scores between Group 1 and Group 2 by using validated scales on Google forms. Data were presented as percentages and frequencies. Independent sample t-test was used to analyze statistical differences.&#x0D; Results: Higher knowledge scores were observed for group 1 as compared to group 2 (9.92 + 2.27 v/s 9.16 +2.53; p= 0.001). Better knowledge, good attitude and safe practice trends were observed in group 1 (medical background) as compared to group 2 (non-medical background).&#x0D; Conclusion: Individuals with a medical background are more knowledgeable and exhibit a cautious attitude and better safety practices regarding COVID-19 as compared to the general population. There is a need to educate the general population about safety measures for COVID-19 including social distancing, usage of masks, self-isolation, avoidance of gatherings and others.

Which factors determine clinicians\u2019 policy and attitudes towards medication and parent training for children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?

Behavioral parent and teacher training and stimulant medication are recommended interventions for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, not all children with ADHD receive this evidence-based care, and the aim of the current study was to find out why. More specifically, we investigated clinicians’ policy, guideline use, and attitudes towards medication and parent training when treating children with ADHD, as well as several factors that could affect this. A total of 219 Dutch clinicians (mainly psychologists, psychiatrists and educationalists) completed a survey. Clinicians were likely to recommend medication more often than parent training, and clinicians’ policy to recommend medication and parent training was positively associated with their attitudes towards these interventions. Less experienced clinicians and those with a non-medical background reported lower rates of guideline use, whereas clinicians with a medical background reported less positive attitudes towards parent training. Furthermore, a substantial portion of the clinicians based their decision to recommend parent training on their clinical judgement (e.g., prior estimations of efficacy, perceived low abilities/motivation of parents), and many clinicians reported barriers for referral to parent training, such as waiting lists or a lack of skilled staff. To achieve better implementation of evidence-based care for children with ADHD, guidelines should be communicated better towards clinicians. Researchers and policy-makers should further focus on barriers that prevent implementation of parent training, which are suggested by the discrepancy between clinicians’ overall positive attitude towards parent training and the relatively low extent to which clinicians actually advise parent training.

Strange blood — The Rise and Fall of Lamb Blood Transfusion in 19th Century Medicine and Beyond Medical Humanities, Volume 5, BoelBerner, (Transcript), 2020. ISBN‐978‐3‐8376‐5163‐8, 214 pages, including notes, sources and literature and an index

This is an interesting little volume seen from several angles. It concerns transfusion (part of the BJH repertoire), but notably it describes how transfusion of lamb's blood became a short-lived fancy among doctors, gaining traction in the 1870s and disappearing within a mere decade Though initially introduced by Riva in Rome in 1667, transfusion of lamb's blood was largely disregarded until the 1870s, when a treatise by Gesellius sought to summarize the literature. Concurrent with this, a series of wars had raised the wish in army doctors to attempt transfusions, most notably in the German Dr. Hasse from Nordhausen, who had served during the war with Denmark in 1864 and against France in 1870. Though blood from lambs had been used for humans every now and then, largely due to its easy availability and the fact that sheep red blood cells are smaller than their human counterparts, Dr. Hasse did significant scaling up and wrote his own book about it. The latter initiated a wave of lamb transfusions for a number of diseases in many Western countries. This book entertainingly describes these developments, both with respect to indications, techniques and actual procedures. In these troubled times, where nostrums for COVID-19 gain rapid and sometimes premature application, it is instructive to see how fast the idea and application of lamb blood transfusions spread. It is salutary in turn to find how quickly the practice disappeared. Although the author has a non-medical background, she has succeeded in amply describing the nature of the transfusion reactions seen. My first research project, in the mid-1970s, was to improve the E-rosette test, which measured the binding of human lymphocytes to sheep red blood cells and served as gold standard for identifying T cells. Reading about the sometimes dramatic reactions to even small volumes of lamb blood, I could not help wondering whether these were due to in vivo E-rosetting! Surprisingly, xenogeneic transfusion got a further but very brief renaissance in the 1890s as part of the serotherapy revolution, which culminated in Behring's tetanus antisera. It would have been instructive if the book had bridged that event and finished with Landsteiner's discoveries of blood groups in 1901 and 1909 which became the true foundation for today's transfusion medicine. Nevertheless, this is a good yarn, showing us how new treatments, also in the 19th century, were touted and ultimately ridiculed.

Global Pandemic and Rapid New Product Development of Medical Products

New product development is a strenuous and long process for companies. When the COVID-19 disease turned into a global pandemic, governments announced the need for various medical products that were scarce and at the same time imposed lockdowns and trade restrictions. During this period, rapid new product development of medical products was attempted by many companies worldwide using their existing supply chains. Data of 240 companies from non-medical product-segment background launching new medical products were collected and analyzed. Two case studies of Indian companies responding to shortages of ventilators and PPE are presented. A critical reflection of a new way of new product development and cooperation across firms is discussed.

Gender and Occupation Predict Coronavirus Disease 2019 Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of a Cohort of a South Indian State Population

AbstractContext: Coronavirus disease 2019 (CoViD 19) pandemic has induced the government to initiate strict control measures. Improvements to these measures and shortcomings could be gleaned with the understanding of the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of the public. Aims: The aim of this study the CoViD 19 KAP of a south Indian state population. Settings and Design: This was a Cross-sectional observational study. Subjects and Methods: We conducted an online survey to elicit this information. Statistical Analysis Used: Mean, Standard deviation, Binomial and Multinomial logistic regression. Results: Of the 1837 subjects who answered the survey, 70% were youth (16–29 years), 54% were postgraduates and 47.8% were desk jobholders. The mean knowledge score was 9.92 ± 2.37/14 and 94.44% secured at least above-average score. The subjects had a positive (70%) attitude towards the CoViD 19 situation and 77% of subjects followed good preventive practices. However, we found that women, people with low education and nonmedical background were associated with poor knowledge and practices. The attitude was poor in subjects occupant in physical works. Conclusions: The health policy would better serve the purpose of the groups with poor scores are targeted.

Validity and reliability of Cervical Cancer Awareness Measure (Cervical CAM) Indonesian version

To identify the validity and reliability of Cervical Cancer Awareness Measure in Indonesian version (Cervical CAM). This study was psychometric testing study consist of construct and content validities, and internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Validity testing with content validity. Construct validity known-group was tested on respondents with two backgrounds, medical (n=12) and non-medical (n=25). Two reliability tests used internal consistency (n=155), and test-retest reliability (n=30). Test-retest testing is done twice with time intervals between tests for 1 week. The value of validity testing with content validity resulted in the range 0.1-1. The group with a medical background had a higher average total value compared to non-medical background [t(12)=28.29 vs t(25)=19.03, respectively]. The value of Cronbach's α=0.606 on reliability testing, meanwhile, the average value of ICC on test-retest reliability was 0.410. Cervical CAM is declared valid and reliable to measure a person's awareness of cervical cancer.

Evaluation of Factors Affecting Awareness About Beta-Thalassemia in Western Rajasthan.

Aims:To determine the factors influencing awareness about beta-thalassemia in the population.Settings and Design:A cross sectional study was conducted by the Department of Pathology, AIIMS, Jodhpur.Methods and Material:The study population included participants with medical as well as non-medical background, to ensure representation of all sections of the society. Data was collected in an objective survey form drafted in simple language.Statistical Analysis Used:The data was analysed using Microsoft Excel and Chi Square Test for Independence was performed.Results:The participants with a positive family history had significantly more knowledge compared to others, but even these participants didn't have complete knowledge about the disease. Age and gender had no significant impact on the results. The mode of occurrence of beta-thalassemia was known to less than half of the participants, with even less number being aware of the fact that diagnosis of beta-thalassemia can be made before birth. Participants with a medical background were aware that there were several forms of beta-thalassemia, but the knowledge about treatment options was limited.Conclusions:Various factors affect the awareness in the general population, which has an effect on the outcome of screening programmes. There is a need for successful implementation of a screening programme for beta-thalassemia in order to reduce the financial burden that it imposes on healthcare facilities and to lessen the emotional burden on relatives of patients with the disease.

Diabetic retinopathy-related knowledge level among the omani population

Background: An annual report published by the Ministry of Oman stated the diabetes mellitus (DM) prevalence of 15.7% among the patients attending a nutritional clinic. This estimate is higher than the prevalence rate of 12.3% that was reported in the national survey done in 2008. The Omani population having sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy (DR) ranges from 14.5% to 42.2%. Many factors can lead to the burden of DR, such as nonawareness or nonserious approach toward eye care. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional questionnaire-based study included 232 participants through a convenient sampling technique. It used a semi-structured interview method to secure the participant responses for evaluating their DR-related knowledge. Statistical Analysis Used: The significance of the association for knowledge among the different study variables was analyzed by applying the Chi-square test and Fisher exact test. One-way analysis of variance was used to compare the knowledge level between participants with different sociodemographic backgrounds. Results: 91.4% of the study population with nonmedical background are aware of ocular complication of diabetes. Condition-linked knowledge adequacy was associated with gender (P Conclusions: Majority of the study participants are aware of ocular complications due to DM. However, variations were observed for the condition-related knowledge level, its prevention, diagnostic treatment, and managerial options in case of visual impairment.