Non-manual Workers Research Articles

Incidence rates of surgically treated rhegmatogenous retinal detachment among manual workers, non-manual workers and housewives in Tuscany, Italy

PurposeCandidate risk factors for idiopathic rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RRD) include heavy manual handling (requiring Valsalva’s maneuver). We assessed incidence rates of surgically treated idiopathic RRD among manual workers, non-manual workers and housewives resident in Tuscany, Italy.MethodsWe retrieved all hospital discharge records bearing a principal diagnosis corresponding to RRD coupled with retinal surgery for any resident of Tuscany during 1997–2009. After elimination of repeated admissions and patients with coexistent, associated conditions (including recent trauma), subjects aged 25–59 years were classified as manual workers, non-manual workers or housewives. Population data were extracted from the 2001 census.ResultsWe identified 1,946 eligible cases (1,142 men). Among men, manual workers experienced a 1.8-fold higher age-standardized rate per 100,000 person-years than non-manual workers [17.4 (95 % confidence interval (CI) 16.1–18.7) vs. 9.8 (95 % CI 8.8–10.8)]. Age-standardized rates among women were 1.9-fold higher for manual workers [11.1 (95 % CI 9.8–12.3)] and 1.7-fold higher for housewives [9.5 (95 % CI 8.3–10.8)] than in non-manual workers [5.7 (95 % CI 4.8–6.6)].ConclusionsThis large population-based study suggests that manual workers are affected by idiopathic RRD requiring surgical treatment more often than non-manual workers. The higher rates of surgically treated RRD experienced by manual workers are in accord with the hypothesis that heavy manual handling may have a causal role.

Education-related differences in physical performance after age 60: a cross-sectional study assessing variation by age, gender and occupation

BackgroundHaving a low level of education has been associated with worse physical performance. However, it is unclear whether this association varies by age, gender or the occupational categories of manual and non-manual work. This study examined whether there are education-related differences across four dimensions of physical performance by age, gender or occupational class and to what extent chronic diseases and lifestyle-related factors may explain such differences.MethodsParticipants were a random sample of 3212 people, 60 years and older, both living in their own homes and in institutions, from the Swedish National Study on Aging and Care, in Kungsholmen, Stockholm. Trained nurses assessed physical performance in grip strength, walking speed, balance and chair stands, and gathered data on education, occupation and lifestyle-related factors, such as physical exercise, body mass index, smoking and alcohol consumption. Diagnoses of chronic diseases were made by the examining physician.ResultsCensored normal regression analyses showed that persons with university education had better grip strength, balance, chair stand time and walking speed than people with elementary school education. The differences in balance and walking speed remained statistically significant (p < 0.05) after adjustment for chronic diseases and lifestyle. However, age-stratified analyses revealed that the differences were no longer statistically significant in advanced age (80+ years). Gender-stratified analyses revealed that women with university education had significantly better grip strength, balance and walking speed compared to women with elementary school education and men with university education had significantly better chair stands and walking speed compared to men with elementary school education in multivariate adjusted models. Further analyses stratified by gender and occupational class suggested that the education-related difference in grip strength was only evident among female manual workers, while the difference in balance and walking speed was only evident among female and male non-manual workers, respectively.ConclusionsHigher education was associated with better lower extremity performance in people aged 60 to 80, but not in advanced age (80+ years). Our results indicate that higher education is associated with better grip strength among female manual workers and with better balance and walking speed among female and male non-manual workers, respectively.

A reconfiguração do sindicalismo brasileiro nos anos 2000: as bases sociais e o perfil político-ideológico da Conlutas

Este artigo tem como objetivo contribuir para a compreensão do perfil socioeconômico e político-ideológico das bases sociais da Conlutas, central sindical e popular criada em 2004 a partir de uma dissidência da CUT, e que conta com a participação de diferentes movimentos sociais. A análise tem como base um survey realizado durante o 1º Congresso Nacional da Conlutas, ocorrido em julho de 2008 na cidade de Betim (MG). Os dados mostram que a Conlutas representa, em sua maioria, trabalhadores não manuais, do setor público, especialmente da educação, que recebem até 3 salários mínimos e que têm uma situação de trabalho caracterizada pela estabilidade.

Vision problems causing and not causing visual impairment in a working population of Catalonia

To analyze the distribution of visual problems which cause and do not cause visual impairment in a working population, and their relation to social class. This was a cross-sectional study of 86,831 employed workers (59,397 men, and 27,421 women) in Catalonia ages 16 to 65 years who, in 2009, underwent health surveillance exams at the Asepeyo Health Prevention. The prevalence of visual problems that cause and do not cause visual impairment was calculated by age, sex and occupational social class, and associations were analyzed using logistic regression. 2.2% (95% CI 2.1-2.3) of the active working population studied had vision problems that cause visual impairment, even while wearing corrective lenses. After adjusting for age, workers in Class V show a 2.4-fold greater risk of visual impairment than those in Class I. Women, older workers and disadvantaged social groups showed the highest prevalence and risk of visual impairment. Conversely, problems resolved by vision correction that do not cause visual impairment are concentrated in non-manual workers.

Relation of socio‐economic status to impaired fasting glucose and Type 2 diabetes: findings based on a large population‐based cross‐sectional study in Tianjin, China

Studies on the relationship between socio-economic status and Type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Chinese population are sparse. We aimed to examine the relation of socio-economic status as represented by income, education and occupation to impaired fasting glucose, Type 2 diabetes, and the control of Type 2 diabetes in a large Chinese population. This study included 7315 individuals who were aged 20-79 years and living in Tianjin, China. Impaired fasting glucose and Type 2 diabetes were ascertained according to the 1999 World Health Organization criteria. Data were analysed using multinomial and binary logistic regression, with adjustment for potential confounders. Among all participants, 532 (7.3%) persons had impaired fasting glucose, 688 (9.4%) persons had Type 2 diabetes, including 288 (3.9%) previously undiagnosed Type 2 diabetes. In fully adjusted multinomial logistic regression, compared with higher income (≥ 2000 yuan, $243.3/month), lower income (< 1000 yuan, $121.70/month) showed odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) of 3.31 (2.48-4.41) for impaired fasting glucose, 4.50 (3.07-6.61) for undiagnosed Type 2 diabetes and 4.56 (3.20-6.48) for diagnosed Type 2 diabetes. These results remained significant in the analysis stratified by education and occupation. Furthermore, persons who were retired were more likely to have impaired fasting glucose [odds ratio 1.91 (1.40-2.45)], undiagnosed Type 2 diabetes [odds ratio 2.01) 1.40-2.89] and diagnosed Type 2 diabetes [odds ratio 3.02 (2.12-4.22)]. Among the patients with Type 2 diabetes previously diagnosed, lower education (less than senior high school), non-manual work and unemployment were related to worse glycaemic control (fasting blood glucose level > 8.5 mmol/l). Lower income and retirement are associated with increased odds of impaired fasting glucose and Type 2 diabetes in Tianjin, China. Education and occupation may play a role in glycaemic control among patients with Type 2 diabetes.

The Association between Type of Work and Insulin Resistance and the Metabolic Syndrome in Middle-Aged Korean Men: Results from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey IV (2007~2009)

PurposeType of work might be related to insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, scant data are available. We performed this study to investigate whether the prevalence of MetS and insulin resistance differed according to occupation in middle-aged men.Materials and MethodsIn all, 2,348 men in their 40s~50s who had participated in the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey IV were included and were classified into two groups according to the type of work (manual worker vs. non-manual worker). Diagnosis of MetS required satisfying three or more of the National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. Fasting insulin, the glucose/insulin ratio (G/I ratio), and the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were used to estimate the insulin resistance. We used the Mann-Whitney test, χ2 tests, multiple linear regression test, and logistic regression analyses to examine the relationships.ResultsAge was significantly higher in the manual worker group. Body mass index was significantly lower in the manual worker group. Rates of current smoking and frequent drinking were higher in the manual worker group. In terms of surrogate markers of insulin resistance, the age-adjusted mean of fasting insulin, G/I ratio, and HOMA-IR indicated that lower insulin resistance was significantly related to manual work. After adjusting for age and other confounding factors, non-manual workers had a higher risk of the MetS than manual workers. The odds ratio in relation to MetS was significantly lower in the manual workers.ConclusionsMetS and impaired insulin resistance are significantly related to non-manual work in middle-aged Korean men.

Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Workers by Occupational Group: Fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2010

ObjectivesThe prevalence of the metabolic syndrome has increased rapidly in South Korea over the past 10 years. However, the occurrence of the metabolic syndrome in workers grouped according to the specific type of work is not well understood in Korea. In this study, we assessed the differences in the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome by occupational group and evaluated the risk of the metabolic syndrome among occupational groups.MethodsFrom the Fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010), 3,303 employed participants were included in this study. The unadjusted and age-adjusted prevalences of the metabolic syndrome were estimated and multiple logistic regression analysis was conducted using the presence of the metabolic syndrome as a dependent variable, and adjusting for age, education level, household income, drinking behavior, smoking status, physical activity, work hours, and work scheduling pattern.ResultsAmong male workers, non-manual workers had the greatest age-adjusted prevalence (26.4%, 95% CI: 22.3-30.5%) among the occupational groups. In a logistic regression analysis, male manual workers had a significantly lower odds ratio for the metabolic syndrome relative to non-manual workers (0.59, 95% CI: 0.41-0.85).ConclusionOur study demonstrated differences in the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome by occupational group and identified the greatest risk for the metabolic syndrome in male non-manual workers.

Occupational factors associated with the potential years of working life lost due to a non-work related permanent disability

To analyze the association between occupational factors (number of contracts and occupational category) and potential years of working life lost (PYWLL) due to non-work related permanent disability (PD). The study design was a retrospective cohort of 11,812 workers affiliated with the Social Security System in Spain that began a non-work related PD between 2004 and 2009. The PYWLL was defined as the time in years between the age at which a worker initiates a PD and age 65 or the age of reinstatement to a job. The PYWLL was analyzed by calculating the quartiles and using an approach based on a median regression. The difference in medians of PYWLL between men and women was 2.49 years (95% CI: 2.01-2.97); between skilled non-manual and unskilled manual workers was 1.88 years (95% CI: 1.08-2.69); between workers with three or more contracts and workers with a single contract in the period was 3.78 years (95% CI: 3.28-4.29). Women, non-skilled workers and employees that have had more contracts within the period of study are those with greatest loss of PYWLL. This suggests that individuals with poorer working and employment conditions could have more PYWLL.

Differences in working conditions and employment arrangements among migrant and non-migrant workers in Europe

Objective. To determine migrant workers' exposure to select occupational risks and compare it with that of non-migrant workers in Europe. Design. Based on the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS-2005, n=29,654 workers, 31 countries) we examined differential prevalence amongst migrant and non-migrant workers' primary paid jobs in terms of employment arrangements (working >10 hours/day, working >5 days/week, on Sundays, without a contract, changes in the work schedule and not free to decide when to take holidays or days off) and working conditions (exposure to hazards including chemical, physical agents, physical load and psychological conditions). For the purpose of this study, a migrant is defined as a person without nationality of the country of residence (n=926). Adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs) for age, economic sector and education were calculated. Results. Differences in employment arrangements and working conditions were noted by migration status, gender and occupational status. Among non-manual workers, migrant males are more exposed than non-migrant males to negative psychosocial conditions – working at a very high speed (aPR 1.23; 95% CI 1.07–1.42) and shift work (aPR 1.66; 95% CI 1.27–2.17) – and adverse employment arrangements: working on Sundays (aPR 1.91; 95% CI 1.42–2.55), variable starting/finishing times (aPR 1.17; 95% CI 1.04–1.32) and changes in work schedule (aPR 1.56; 95% CI 1.30–1.88). Compared with non-migrant males, male migrant manual workers are the group with a greater number of disparities in terms of exposure to negative working conditions. Female migrant non-manual workers are more exposed to psychosocial conditions – working at very high speed (aPR 1.26; 95% CI 1.10–1.44) and shift work (aPR 1.61; 95% CI 1.29–2.01) while female manual migrant workers were more likely to report standing or walking (aPR 2.43; 95% CI 1.98–2.97), not having a contract (aPR 2.94; 95% CI 2.07–4.10) and not being free to decide days off and holidays (aPR 1.25; 95% CI 1.07–1.48) than non-migrants. Conclusion. Migrant workers across Europe are more likely to be exposed to certain working and employment arrangements that may place them at higher risk of future health problems.

Smoking Rate Trends in Korean Occupational Groups: Analysis of KNHANES 1998–2009 Data

This study aimed to investigate changes in the smoking rate among Korean adults from 1998-2009 by gender and occupational groups. Using the data from the first (1998), second (2001), third (2005) and fourth (2009) waves of the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), we examined men and women between 25-64 years old. Occupational groups were classified into 3 groups of non-manual workers, 5 groups of manual workers and other workers groups. The other group included the unemployed, students and housewives. Age-adjusted prevalence rates of cigarette smoking were calculated for 10-year age groups in each wave of the KNHANES. Trends in the smoking rate according to occupational groups were estimated. Among male workers, decreasing trends in smoking rates were observed in non-manual workers, manual workers, and other workers. The odds ratios and prevalence ratios for the smoking rates of the manual workers comparing the non-manual workers increased from 1998 to 2005, whereas decreased to 1.38 and 1.12, respectively, in 2009. Differences in smoking rates between manual and non-manual workers increased from 1998 to 2005 but decreased from 2005 to 2009. Among female workers, the smoking rates decreased between 1998 and 2001 and increased beginning in 2001. The smoking rate of the manual workers group was still higher than that of the non-manual workers group. Anti-smoking programs specific to each occupational group are needed.

Prevalence of tobacco consumption among working population after the law 42/2010, Spain

The aim of this study was to analyze the impact on tobacco consumption among working population of the Law 42/2010, which amends smoking regulations in Spain. Data were obtained from 413,473 Occupational Health check-ups, conducted between July of 2009 and June of 2011, in the Society for Prevention of a Mutual Insurance Company. We analyzed changes in the biannual percentage of smokers and the magnitude of tobacco consumption among smokers in the overall set of medical check-ups, by gender, age, occupational level (manual vs. non-manual workers), and in the specific occupational subgroup of waiters, barmen and similar workers (chi-square test). In the overall set of medical check-ups, the percentage of smokers decreased by 5% (from 40.3% to 35.3%) over the period of study (p <0.001) and the group of smokers with lower daily consumption (< 10 cigarettes) became the most frequent (p <0.001). In the group of waiters, barmen and similar workers the differences in the biannual percentage of smokers did not reach statistical significance (p =0.07). In this group, smokers of < 10 cigarretes/ day also became the most common consumption group (increasing from 40.5% to 48.8%) and the percentage of 21-40 cigarretes/day decreased from 10.6% to 4% (p =0.008). These results suggest that the new regulation has been accompanied by a significant reduction in smoking among Spanish workers and strongly support population-level measures against tobacco consumption.

Surface electromyography features in manual workers affected by carpal tunnel syndrome

Alterations in surface electromyographic (sEMG) signals of the abductor pollicis brevis muscle were evaluated in 24 non-manual workers and 40 manual workers (25 asymptomatic and 15 reporting CTS symptoms). The initial value (IV) and the normalized rate of change (NRC) of average rectified value (ARV), mean frequency of the power spectrum (MNF), and muscle fiber conduction velocity (MFCV) were calculated during contractions at 20% and 50% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Neuromuscular efficiency (NME) and kurtosis of the sEMG amplitude distribution were estimated. With respect to controls, manual workers showed higher NME, lower ARV IV, and reduced myoelectric manifestations of fatigue (lower MNF NRC for both contraction levels, and lower MFCV NRC at 50% MVC). Kurtosis at 20% MVC showed higher values in symptomatic manual workers than in the other two groups. Kurtosis seems to be a promising parameter for use in monitoring individuals who develop CTS.

Is Intergenerational Social Mobility Related to the Type and Amount of Physical Activity in Mid-Adulthood? Results from the 1946 British Birth Cohort Study

PurposeGreater levels of leisure-time or moderate-vigorous physical activity have consistently been found in those with greater socioeconomic position (SEP). Less is known about the effects of intergenerational social mobility.MethodsWe examined the influence of SEP and social mobility on mid-adulthood physical activity in the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development. Two sub-domains of SEP were used: occupational class and educational attainment. Latent classes for walking, cycling, and leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) were used, plus sedentary behavior at age 36. Associations between types of physical activity and SEP were examined with the use of logistic or multinomial logistic regression.ResultsBeing a manual worker oneself or having a father who was a manual worker was, relative to nonmanual work, associated with lower levels of sedentary behavior and greater walking activity, but also with lower LTPA. Compared with those who remained in a manual occupational class, upward occupational mobility was associated with more sedentary behavior, less walking, and increased LTPA. Associations with downward mobility were in the opposite directions. Similar results were obtained for educational attainment.ConclusionsThis study found clear evidence of social differences in physical activity. Persistently high SEP and upward social mobility were associated with greater levels of LTPA but also increased sedentary behavior and less walking.

Childhood and Adult Social Conditions and Risk of Stroke

Background: Socioeconomic conditions may strongly influence the risk of stroke. We tested the hypotheses that indexes of social status in different life periods including childhood are inversely associated with stroke risk and that there is a cumulative effect of social conditions during lifetime on the risk of stroke. Furthermore, we investigated whether social advancement compared to the parental generation is associated with reduced stroke risk. Methods: In a case-control study, we assessed parental professional status, highest school degree, professional education and the last professional activity in 370 consecutive patients with ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke or transient ischemic attack [TIA; age 60.7 ± 12.8 years (mean ± standard deviation); 31.1% women] and 370 age- and sex-matched control subjects randomly selected from the general population of the same area. Results: Higher level of school exams [odds ratio (OR) 0.58, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.39–0.86], university or polytechnic high school degrees (OR 0.39, 95% CI 0.24–0.63), nonmanual (last or current) professional activity (OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.37–0.71) and father’s nonmanual professional activity (OR 0.64, 95% 0.43–0.97) were associated with a lower risk of stroke/TIA. Adjustment for vascular risk factors including current smoking and alcohol consumption reduced the strength of these associations and rendered them nonsignificant except for university or polytechnic high school degrees (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.27–0.87). Additional adjustment for regular sports activity further attenuated the association between academic degrees and risk of stroke/TIA (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.31–1.02). A score summarizing 4 lifetime social indexes was not independently associated with stroke risk (OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.39–1.16). Social advancement as assessed by changes from paternal manual work to nonmanual work in the index generation was more common among control subjects (23.5%) than patients (15.3%; p = 0.0097), but such advancement was not independently associated with stroke/TIA after adjustment for all covariables (OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.50–1.33). Conclusions: Socioeconomic conditions were inversely linked to the risk of stroke/TIA. These associations were strongly influenced by lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption and mainly sports activity. Stroke preventive strategies may have a particularly large potential if they focus on such lifestyle habits in socially disadvantaged groups.

Effect of the Interaction Between Employment Level and Psychosocial Work Environment on Insomnia in Male Japanese Public Service Workers

Little is known about the combined risk of socioeconomic status and psychosocial environment for insomnia. The purpose of this study was to investigate the combined risk of employment level and psychosocial work environment for insomnia in a large Japanese male working population. We investigated 5,951 male employees aged 34-59 years from two local governments in Japan. Data were obtained from a questionnaire distributed in advance of their annual health check-up. Employment level was categorized as higher-level non-manual workers, lower-level non-manual workers, and manual workers. Psychosocial work environment was assessed using the Demand-Control Model and the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model (ERI). Insomnia was assessed using the Athens Insomnia Scale. The results showed that 1,382 (23.2 %) participants suffered from insomnia. Lower employment level was significantly associated with a higher risk of insomnia. Job strain (ratio of job demand to job control), E/R (ratio of job effort to job reward), and OC (over commitment) were also significantly associated with insomnia. The relative excess risk due to the interaction between employment level and psychosocial environment (job strain, E/R, and OC) was 0.09 (95 % CI -0.57 to 0.76), 2.61 (0.74 to 4.48), and 3.14 (0.82 to 5.45), respectively; synergy index = 1.07 (0.66 to 1.74), 1.99 (1.37 to 2.90), and 2.25 (1.46 to 3.46), respectively. We found supra-additive interactions between employment level and psychosocial environment, assessed by the ERI (E/R and OC). Our findings suggested that lower level workers are more vulnerable to an adverse psychosocial environment than those at a higher level.

Prevalence of malnutrition and its etiological factors in hospitals.

Malnutrition among inpatients is highly prevalent, and has a negative impact on their clinical outcome. The Working Group for the Study of Malnutrition in Hospitals in Catalonia was created to generate consensus guidelines for the prevention and/or treatment of malnutrition in hospitals in Catalonia, Spain. The objectives of the study were to determine the prevalence of malnutrition on admission to hospital in Catalonia and to assess relationships between malnutrition, social and demographic data, overall costs, and mortality. Prospective and multicenter study conducted with 796 patients from 11 hospitals representative of the hospitalized population in Catalonia. Nutritional status was evaluated using the Nutritional Risk Screening 2002 method. Overall, 28.9% of the patients are malnourished or at nutritional risk. Elderly patients, non-manual workers, those admitted to hospital as emergencies and with higher co-morbidities had higher risk of malnutrition. The type of hospital (second level vs. tertiary or University referral) to which they were admitted was also a factor predisposing to malnutrition. Length of hospital stay was longer in malnourished patients (10.5 vs. 7.7 days, p < 0.0001). The need for a convalescent home on leaving hospital was higher as well as the risk of mortality (8.6% malnourished vs. 1.3% nonmalnourished, p < 0.0001). The prevalence of malnutrition is high in patients on admission to hospital in our community, resulting in elevated overall costs and higher risk of mortality. Age, social class and characteristics of the Unit and the Hospital are the main factors involved in hospital malnutrition.

Socioeconomic Indicators Associated with Initiation and Cessation of Smoking among Women in Seoul

BackgroundWhile smoking prevalence in Korean men has been decreasing, it is increasing in Korean women. Little is known about women's smoking inequalities in Korea. This study was conducted to investigate the association of socioeconomic indicators with the initiation and cessation of smoking among Korean women.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study on 9,089 women aged 25-64 years from the 2008 Seoul Community Health Survey. The data on smoking and socioeconomic status were obtained through face-to-face interviews. Smoking initiation rate was defined as the proportion of the individuals who had started smoking at least one cigarette among all subjects. Smoking cessation rate was calculated by dividing the number of individuals who had quit smoking by the number of ever smokers. Education level, total family income and occupation were investigated as socioeconomic indicators.ResultsEducation level was significantly associated with both initiation and cessation of smoking. Lower educated women had a higher likelihood of smoking initiation (odds ratio [OR], 1.72; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.17 to 2.51) but lower likelihood of smoking cessation (OR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.22 to 0.66) than higher educated women. Smoking initiation rate was higher in manual workers (OR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.20 to 2.27) than in non-manual workers. However, there were no significant differences of both initiation and cessation of smoking according to total household income.ConclusionThis study shows that there are smoking inequalities among Korean women. It is thought that education level and occupation are important determinants of women's smoking status.

Disparities of Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence by Age, Gender and Occupation among Korean Adult Workers

Occupation can influence the prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Age and gender could interact with the association between occupation and metabolic syndrome. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of metabolic syndrome among the Korean working population and determine whether the prevalence differed according to occupation, age and gender. We conducted a cross-sectional study in Korean adults using the Third Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES III). The analysis included 3,288 workers over 19 yr old. The prevalence odds ratios (PORs) of metabolic syndrome among representative types of occupations were estimated after stratification for age and gender by logistic regression. Female manual workers had a higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome than female non-manual workers among those younger than age 50 (POR=1.95, 95%CI=1.12-3.40). However, female manual workers aged 50 and older had a lower prevalence of metabolic syndrome than female non-manual workers (POR=0.36, 95%CI=0.22-0.59). Manual occupations can be a risk factor for metabolic syndrome, but this correlation is limited to younger female workers. The effects of occupation on the prevalence of metabolic syndrome were different between older and younger workers, which could be due to longitudinal transition of socio-cultural structure.

Il paradosso dell’anzianità

Sociologists have recently studied origins and maintenance of the so-called unpopular norms. These norms are not supported by a majority of persons, but notwithstanding are institutionalized and even endorsed by people who disapproved them. Some of these norms persist for a long time even if they are inefficient from a social or economic viewpoint. This seems the case for the norm of seniority in Italian wage- and pension schemes. In a seniority-based wage system, wage increases with the increase of workers’ age, independently from their productivity. Empirically, these wage systems are strongly associated with early retirement - as in Spain, Greece, Belgium and Italy.A seniority-based wage system and an early retirement pension scheme (after 35-37 years of work seniority) were structured through collective bargaining and legislative lobbying over several decades until they became firm institutions of industrial relations and welfare state. Their costs were and are allocated to the less well - defended social groups (young people and immigrants) and taxpayers - through taxation or adding to the sovereign debt.Data on labor earnings of 2502 workers collected in 2011 from a national sample of workers were regressed on some independent variables. As a source of variation in workers earnings, seniority is more important than education, social origin, sex, area of residence of the worker. The seniority norm advantages especially non-manual workers (including managers), followed by manual workers.It is therefore paradoxical that seniority was chosen as the least popular criterion among the many which can be used for the distribution of earnings - e.g. merit, desert, need, education, responsibility, risk.Data collected in 1980 (non-manual and manual workers in 42 FIAT factories) and 2011 (AGING survey) shows that seniority, as a base of the wage system, was and is preferred only by a small minority of workers: 8,5% on FIAT plants (1980); less of ‘1% in AGING sample (2001).Early retirements pick a broader consensus, particularly among the cohorts of unskilled manual and non-manual workers, aged between 45 and 55 years (data from many surveys between 1996 and 2011).Explanations of the genesis and maintenance of seniority in the wage system and pensions schemes are offered. Reasons for its adoption were the simplicity of its application; the ability to avoid distributional conflicts among workers -- in a normative setting with many lines of cleavage; and the desire of entrepreneurs to obtain from their workers internalization of the objectives of the firm. The role of the government in the ‘40s and ‘50s (public workers) and unions from the 70s (industry and tertiary workers) were also appreciated. The opacity of costs allocation and the absence of political entrepreneurs for organizing collective action could explain the pragmatic acceptance of the seniority norm by the affected people. For now.

Daily steps among Finnish adults: Variation by age, sex, and socioeconomic position

The aim of this study was to provide descriptive population-based pedometer data from adults aged 30-45 years in Finland, and to compare daily step counts with evidence-based indices. The data was collected from 1853 participants in 7 consecutive days in winter 2007-08 in part of 27-year follow up of the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study. The participants took (mean±standard deviation) 7499 ± 2908 steps/day. Step counts included 1925 ± 2052 aerobic steps/day gathered in bouts of at least 10 min continuous ambulatory activity. Women had more total steps than men ((7824 ± 2925 vs. 7089 ± 2774; p < 0.001). Although participants had higher mean total steps on weekdays than on weekend days, they took more aerobic steps on weekend days than weekdays (p < 0.001). High-level non-manual work, and unemployment were associated with having fewer total steps, but high-level non-manual workers had more aerobic steps than other occupation groups. According to pedometer thresholds proposed by Tudor-Locke and Basset, 26% of men and 16% of women could be classified as inactive (<5000 steps/day) and 20% of women and 15% of men would be classified as active (>10,000 steps/day). We conclude that about one-quarter of men and one-fifth of women are considered as inactive, based on the number of daily total steps. Our results suggest that total steps may provide a very different picture of activity from aerobic steps; important differences are evident by socioeconomic position and day of the week.