Nonmaltreated Children Research Articles

A Longitudinal Study of Emotion Regulation, Emotion Lability‐Negativity, and Internalizing Symptomatology in Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Children

The longitudinal contributions of emotion regulation and emotion lability-negativity to internalizing symptomatology were examined in a low-income sample (171 maltreated and 151 nonmaltreated children, from age 7 to 10years). Latent difference score models indicated that for both maltreated and nonmaltreated children, emotion regulation was a mediator between emotion lability-negativity and internalizing symptomatology, whereas emotion lability-negativity was not a mediator between emotion regulation and internalizing symptomatology. Early maltreatment was associated with high emotion lability-negativity (age 7) that contributed to poor emotion regulation (age 8), which in turn was predictive of increases in internalizing symptomatology (from age 8 to 9). The results imply important roles of emotion regulation in the development of internalizing symptomatology, especially for children with high emotion lability-negativity.

Child Maltreatment and Mediating Influences of Childhood Personality Types on the Development of Adolescent Psychopathology

The purpose of this study is to investigate longitudinal risk processes linking early child maltreatment, childhood personality organizations, and adolescent maladaptation. In a sample of maltreated and nonmaltreated children (N = 400; 62.3% African American, 11.8% Hispanic; 40.8% girls), a tripartite personality typology based on California Child Q-Set items representative of ego resiliency and ego control personality dimensions (Block & Block, 1969/1980) was derived at Wave 1 (age range = 10–12). The typology, composed of Resilient, Overcontrolled, and Undercontrolled profiles, was evaluated for associations with previous child maltreatment, and for its utility in predicting adolescent psychopathology (age range = 15–18). Maltreated children were significantly more likely than nonmaltreated children to be classified into the overcontrolled (Odds Ratio = 1.847) and undercontrolled profiles (Odds Ratio = 2.101), compared to the Resilient profile. The undercontrolled profile reported higher cannabis symptoms and externalizing problems in adolescence than the other two profiles. The overcontrolled group showed the highest levels of internalizing and lowest levels of alcohol problems compared to the other profiles. Person-centered mediation analyses showed that the overcontrolled and the undercontrolled profiles significantly and differentially mediated the link between number of child maltreatment subtypes and the development of adolescent psychopathology. Child maltreatment is a potent environmental stressor that potentiates compromised personality development, eventuating in heightened psychopathology in adolescence. These findings have important implications for prevention and intervention of psychopathology and substance abuse among low income and maltreated youth.

100. Leptin deficiency in maltreated children: Implications for psychoneuroimmunology

Background: Childhood maltreatment is linked to multiple immunological abnormalities. Experimental research in animal models showed that stressful experiences in early life may also be associated with impaired leptin response to physiological stimuli, such as adiposity and inflammation. In turn, leptin deficiency is known to be associated with impaired adaptive immune system functioning and dysregulation in inflammation resolution. We therefore sough to translate these findings to human research and test if childhood maltreatment predicts leptin deficiency. Methods: We assessed leptin and C-reactive protein in dried blood spots and anthropometric measures from 170 12-year-old participants of the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Study. Childhood maltreatment was prospectively assessed through repeated interviews with mothers in the first decade of study participants’ life. Results: Maltreated children showed a trend towards lower leptin levels than nonmaltreated children. Furthermore, maltreated children showed reduced leptin response to increasing inflammation and adiposity levels. These findings could not be explained by key potential confounders or pre-existing abnormalities in energy homeostasis. Conclusion: Childhood maltreatment is associated with leptin deficiency, which could contribute to previously reported immune abnormalities

Effects of maltreatment and early intervention on diurnal cortisol slope across the start of school: A pilot study

Maltreated foster children have a high prevalence of developmental delays, psychosocial maladjustment, and psychiatric symptoms (Klee, Kronstadt, & Zlotnick, 1997; Landsverk, Garland, & Leslie, 2002). Recent work has focused on understanding effects of maltreatment and caregiver transitions on neurobiological systems involved in the stress response, specifically the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (Bruce, Fisher, Pears, & Levine, 2009; Dozier et al., 2006). The HPA axis—indexed by cortisol levels—displays a diurnal rhythm, typically characterized by relatively high morning levels that decline to near-zero by bedtime (Kirschbaum et al., 1990). This change across the day is referred to as the diurnal cortisol slope. Previous work indicates that young foster children are more likely than their nonmaltreated peers to evidence a flattened diurnal cortisol slope (or less change across the day), resulting from low morning cortisol levels, which may indicate a poorly regulated system (Dozier et al., 2006; Fisher et al., 2006). However, despite the high prevalence of socioemotional difficulties in this population, only a minority of foster children display low morning cortisol levels (Bruce et al., 2009). Because the HPA axis is also designed to respond to physical and psychological challenges in the environment (Kirschbaum et al., 1990), examining the responsiveness of the system to stressors may provide further insight into potential effects of maltreatment and caregiver transitions. Although research with older children and adults has often employed laboratory stressors to measure immediate changes in cortisol levels, research with normative samples of young children has focused on changes in the diurnal cortisol rhythm in response to naturally occurring stressors, such as the start of school (Bruce, Davis, & Gunnar, 2002; Davis, Donzella, Krueger, & Gunnar, 1999; Quas, Murowchick, Bensadoun, & Boyce, 2002; Turner-Cobb, Rixon, & Jessop, 2008). This work provides evidence for a transient perturbation in the diurnal cortisol rhythm in response to the start of school, characterized by a steeper slope on the 1st day of school compared to weekend days later in the year (Bruce et al., 2002). This steeper slope, which has been viewed as a healthy adaptation to a novel, significant event, resulted from higher morning and lower evening cortisol levels on the 1st day of school. However, individual differences appear to play a large role, such that higher temperamental surgency (Bruce et al., 2002; Davis et al., 1999) and lower effortful control (Turner-Cobb et al., 2008) predict a steeper slope beyond the 1st day of school, potentially indicative of greater reactivity or less recovery of the system. Although Gutteling, de Weerth, and Buitelaar (2008) documented effects of prenatal stress on the diurnal cortisol rhythm across the start of school, the effects of severe early life stress, such as maltreatment and caregiver transitions, remain unknown. Moreover, it is unclear whether comprehensive early preventive intervention programs such as Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Preschoolers (MTFC-P; Fisher, Ellis, & Chamberlain, 1999) affect changes in the diurnal cortisol rhythm in response to a naturally occurring stressor. MTFC-P supports foster parents in providing consistent and contingent responses to positive and negative child behaviors. The child’s environment thus becomes more predictable, responsive and reinforcing, which has been shown to prevent the development of an increasingly flattened diurnal cortisol rhythm in foster children (Fisher, Stoolmiller, Gunnar, & Burraston, 2007). However, the impact of MTFC-P on the responsiveness of the HPA axis to important life events, such as the start of school, remains untested. Foster children often experience difficulties in school (Pears, Fisher, Bruce, Kim & Yoerger, 2010), and preventive interventions that influence the capacity of the HPA axis to respond to the challenge of the start of school may support a more adaptive transition. This pilot study examines changes in diurnal cortisol in response to the start of school for three groups of children: foster children who received regular foster care (RFC); foster children who received MTFC-P; and low-income, nonmaltreated children living with their biological parents (community comparison [CC]). We hypothesized that RFC children would show an extended cortisol response, characterized by a steeper slope on the 1st and 5th days compared to the week before school, and that MTFC-P and CC children would show a transient cortisol response, characterized by a steeper slope only on the 1st day of school.

Reduced orbitofrontal and temporal grey matter in a community sample of maltreated children

Childhood maltreatment is strongly associated with increased risk of psychiatric disorder. Previous neuroimaging studies have reported atypical neural structure in the orbitofrontal cortex, temporal lobe, amygdala, hippocampus and cerebellum in maltreated samples. It has been hypothesised that these structural differences may relate to increased psychiatric vulnerability. However, previous studies have typically recruited clinical samples with concurrent psychiatric disorders, or have poorly characterised the range of maltreatment experiences and levels of concurrent anxiety or depression, limiting the interpretation of the observed structural differences. We used voxel-based morphometry to compare grey matter volume in a group of 18 children (mean age 12.01 years, SD = 1.4), referred to community social services, with documented and well-characterised experiences of maltreatment at home and a group of 20 nonmaltreated children (mean age 12.6 years, SD = 1.3). Both groups were comparable on age, gender, cognitive ability, ethnicity and levels of anxiety, depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms. We examined five a priori regions of interest: the prefrontal cortex, temporal lobes, amygdala, hippocampus and cerebellum. Maltreated children, compared to nonmaltreated peers, presented with reduced grey matter in the medial orbitofrontal cortex and the left middle temporal gyrus. The medial orbitofrontal cortex and the middle temporal gyrus have been implicated in reinforcement-based decision-making, emotion regulation and autobiographical memory, processes that are impaired in a number of psychiatric disorders associated with maltreatment. We speculate that grey matter disturbance in these regions in a community sample of maltreated children may represent a latent neurobiological risk factor for later psychopathology and heightened risk taking.

The effects of child maltreatment on early signs of antisocial behavior: Genetic moderation by tryptophan hydroxylase, serotonin transporter, and monoamine oxidase A genes

Gene-environment interaction effects in predicting antisocial behavior in late childhood were investigated among maltreated and nonmaltreated low-income children (N = 627, M age = 11.27). Variants in three genes were examined: tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1), serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), and monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) upstream variable number tandem repeat. In addition to child maltreatment status, we considered the impact of maltreatment subtypes, developmental timing of maltreatment, and chronicity. Indicators of antisocial behavior were obtained from self-, peer, and adult counselor reports. In a series of analyses of covariance, child maltreatment and its parameters demonstrated strong main effects on early antisocial behavior as assessed by all report forms. Genetic effects operated primarily in the context of gene-environment interactions, moderating the impact of child maltreatment on outcomes. Across the three genes, among nonmaltreated children no differences in antisocial behavior were found based on genetic variation. In contrast, among maltreated children specific polymorphisms of TPH1, 5-HTTLPR, and MAOA were each related to heightened self-report of antisocial behavior; the interaction of 5-HTTLPR and developmental timing of maltreatment also indicated more severe antisocial outcomes for children with early onset and recurrent maltreatment based on genotype. TPH1 and 5-HTTLPR interacted with maltreatment subtype to predict peer reports of antisocial behavior; genetic variation contributed to larger differences in antisocial behavior among abused children. The TPH1 and 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms also moderated the effects of maltreatment subtype on adult reports of antisocial behavior; again, the genetic effects were strongest for children who were abused. In addition, TPH1 moderated the effect of developmental timing of maltreatment and chronicity on adult reports of antisocial behavior. The findings elucidate how genetic variation contributes to identifying which maltreated children are most vulnerable to antisocial development.

Child Protection and Mental Health

Child Protection and Mental Health

A prospective investigation of physical health outcomes in abused and neglected children: new findings from a 30-year follow-up.

We investigated whether abused and neglected children are at risk for negative physical health outcomes in adulthood. Using a prospective cohort design, we matched children (aged 0-11 years) with documented cases of physical and sexual abuse and neglect from a US Midwestern county during 1967 through 1971 with nonmaltreated children. Both groups completed a medical status examination (measured health outcomes and blood tests) and interview during 2003 through 2005 (mean age=41.2 years). After adjusting for age, gender, and race, child maltreatment predicted above normal hemoglobin, lower albumin levels, poor peak airflow, and vision problems in adulthood. Physical abuse predicted malnutrition, albumin, blood urea nitrogen, and hemoglobin A1C. Neglect predicted hemoglobin A1C, albumin, poor peak airflow, and oral health and vision problems, Sexual abuse predicted hepatitis C and oral health problems. Additional controls for childhood socioeconomic status, adult socioeconomic status, unhealthy behaviors, smoking, and mental health problems play varying roles in attenuating or intensifying these relationships. Child abuse and neglect affect long-term health status-increasing risk for diabetes, lung disease, malnutrition, and vision problems-and support the need for early health care prevention.

Gene × Environment interaction and resilience: effects of child maltreatment and serotonin, corticotropin releasing hormone, dopamine, and oxytocin genes.

In this investigation, gene-environment interaction effects in predicting resilience in adaptive functioning among maltreated and nonmaltreated low-income children (N = 595) were examined. A multicomponent index of resilient functioning was derived and levels of resilient functioning were identified. Variants in four genes (serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, dopamine receptor D4-521C/T, and oxytocin receptor) were investigated. In a series of analyses of covariance, child maltreatment demonstrated a strong negative main effect on children's resilient functioning, whereas no main effects for any of the genotypes of the respective genes were found. However, gene-environment interactions involving genotypes of each of the respective genes and maltreatment status were obtained. For each respective gene, among children with a specific genotype, the relative advantage in resilient functioning of nonmaltreated compared to maltreated children was stronger than was the case for nonmaltreated and maltreated children with other genotypes of the respective gene. Across the four genes, a composite of the genotypes that more strongly differentiated resilient functioning between nonmaltreated and maltreated children provided further evidence of genetic variations influencing resilient functioning in nonmaltreated children, whereas genetic variation had a negligible effect on promoting resilience among maltreated children. Additional effects were observed for children based on the number of subtypes of maltreatment children experienced, as well as for abuse and neglect subgroups. Finally, maltreated and nonmaltreated children with high levels of resilience differed in their average number of differentiating genotypes. These results suggest that differential resilient outcomes are based on the interaction between genes and developmental experiences.

Differential expression of social dominance as a function of age and maltreatment experience.

Recent perspectives on social dominance in normative populations have suggested a developmental progression from using primarily coercive strategies to incorporation of more socially competent strategies to attain material and social resources. Parental influences on the resource control strategies children use have been proposed but not investigated empirically. The present study examined age- and gender-related differences in dominance strategies in 470 children from high-risk neighborhoods who were between 6 and 13 years of age, approximately half of whom had experienced maltreatment. A Q-sort measure of social dominance was developed and received preliminary support. Consistent with predictions from resource control theory, age-related differences in dominance-related behavior were demonstrated in both nonmaltreated and maltreated children. Maltreated children were more likely than nonmaltreated children to be identified as dominant bullies at any age. Dominance and bullying were not more likely to be associated for children who had experienced physical and sexual abuse relative to those who were neglected or emotionally maltreated. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of maltreatment on the social development of children, and intervention approaches for limiting these deleterious effects are recommended.

Longitudinal associations among child maltreatment, social functioning, and cortisol regulation.

Child maltreatment increases the risk for impaired social functioning and cortisol regulation. However, the longitudinal interplay among these factors is still unclear. This study aimed to shed light on the effect of maltreatment on social functioning and cortisol regulation over time. The sample consisted of 236 children (mean age 7.64 years, SD = 1.36; 125 maltreated children and 111 nonmaltreated children, 128 boys and 108 girls) who attended a week-long summer camp for 2 consecutive years. Saliva was collected during 5 days at 9:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. Means of morning and afternoon cortisol levels and cortisol change (difference between morning and afternoon levels, controlled for morning levels) were used to group the children into low-, medium-, and high-cortisol groups. Prosocial, disruptive/aggressive, and withdrawn behaviors were assessed using information from peers and counselors. Maltreated children showed less prosocial and more disruptive/aggressive and withdrawn behavior. Results of structural equation modeling analyses indicated that there were indirect effects of maltreatment on Year 2 morning cortisol via prosocial and disruptive/aggressive behavior: Lower levels of prosocial behavior and higher levels of disruptive/aggressive behavior were related to lower morning cortisol levels 1 year later. Withdrawn behavior was related to higher afternoon cortisol values 1 year later. Results of this study suggest that maltreated children are more likely to experience difficulties in social functioning, which in turn is related to cortisol regulation 1 year later. This altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis functioning may put children at risk for later psychopathology.

Developmental pathways to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: Child maltreatment, emerging personality, and internalizing versus externalizing psychopathology.

Child maltreatment is strongly associated with adolescent psychopathology and substance abuse and dependence. However, developmental processes unfolding from childhood into adolescence that delineate this trajectory are not well understood. The current study used path analysis in a structural equation modeling framework to examine multiple mediator models, including ego control, ego resiliency, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms to investigate this developmental process. Participants were 415 children, assessed across 3 waves of data, (i.e., at ages 7 to 9, 10 to 12, and 13 to 15). The sample included maltreated (n = 259) and nonmaltreated (n = 156) children; groups were comparable in sociodemographic characteristics. Findings support an transactional-ecological model by revealing a developmental sequence in which severity of early childhood maltreatment potentiates less adaptive childhood personality functioning, followed by externalizing problems in preadolescence, and ultimately adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence symptoms. A developmental pathway from child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence symptoms via personality and preadolescent internalizing problems was not supported. Understanding developmental pathways by which maltreatment experiences increase risk for substance abuse and dependence symptoms in youth has far-reaching implications for the treatment and prevention of substance use disorders.

Rischio e resilienza nei bambini maltrattati

Obiettivo di questo studio č verificare se il tipo di abuso, inteso in termini di presenza/ assenza di minaccia all'integritŕ psico-fisica, moderi la relazione tra variabili individuali (stile di attaccamento, competenze cognitive, strategie di coping), familiari (esito positivo/ negativo al trattamento) e caratteristiche specifiche dell'abuso (gravitŕ e durata della violenza), e l'adattamento psicologico in termini di problemi di internalizzazione ed esternalizzazione in bambini vittime di abuso e maltrattamento. Un ulteriore obiettivo consiste nel valutare quali tra queste dimensioni (individuale, familiare e dell'abuso) siano predittive della presenza di problemi comportamentali di internalizzazione e/o esternalizzazione. I partecipanti sono 118 bambini (etŕ media = 10,04), di cui 60 vittime di maltrattamento (etŕ media = 10,95) e 58 non maltrattati (etŕ media = 9,10), provenienti da classi sociali basse. Nel gruppo dei maltrattati, 22 bambini sono vittime di abusi con minaccia, i restanti 38 di violenza senza minaccia. I risultati indicano che nei bambini maltrattati senza minaccia i problemi di internalizzazione sono predetti solo dallo stile di attaccamento, quelli di esternalizzazione dalla combinazione di attaccamento e coping di distrazione. Nel gruppo dei bambini maltrattati con minaccia, invece, l'internalizzazione č predetta dall'attaccamento e dal ridotto ricorso a strategie disfunzionali di distrazione ed evitamento; i comportamenti di esternalizzazione risentono, invece, dell'influenza di scarse competenze cognitive.

Maltreatment and Parasocial Relationships in US Children

This study examined the strength and mood management potential of positive parasocial relationships with favorite television characters in maltreated children. Based on a survey of 270 children (67 maltreated; 203 non-maltreated) between the ages of 5 and 16 years old, maltreated children watched 50 per cent more television per day than non-maltreated children. This study provides evidence that the strength of parasocial encounters with a favorite character remain at a predictable level of intensity regardless of contextual maltreatment factors. The differences seem to be driven by frequency of exposure, rather than strength of connection. Level of exposure indicates that maltreated children experience a higher dosage of mood-altering media, which for both groups, includes a favored character that is more positive than negative. Character preferences indicate the relationship is a nuanced mood management tool that maltreated children turn to frequently and provides a positive experience that should be a welcome change from their everyday life.

Interactive effects of corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, and child maltreatment on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology.

Within an allostatic load framework, the effect of Gene × Environment (G × E) interactions on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology were investigated. Variation in the corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) TAT haplotype and serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) was determined in a sample of maltreated (n = 238, 21.4% with early physical and sexual abuse) and nonmaltreated (n = 255) children (M age = 10.08) participating in a summer research camp. Internalizing and depressive symptoms were assessed by other and self-report. G × E effects for CRHR1 and maltreatment and early abuse on diurnal cortisol regulation were observed; CRHR1 variation was related to cortisol dysregulation only among maltreated children. Early abuse and high internalizing symptoms also interacted to predict atypical diurnal cortisol regulation. The interaction of CRHR1, 5-HTTLPR, and child maltreatment (G × G × E) identified a subgroup of maltreated children with high internalizing symptoms who shared the same combination of the two genes. The findings support an allostatic load perspective on the effects of the chronic stress associated with child maltreatment on cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology as moderated by genetic variation.

Representations of Attachment Patterns in the Family Drawings of Maltreated and Non‐maltreated Children

The study was conducted to investigate and compare the attachment styles of maltreated and non‐maltreated children through the use of the family drawing technique. The sample consisted of ten maltreated and ten non‐maltreated children between the ages of five and 11. The findings revealed that the maltreated children depicted significantly more items in their drawings linked to an insecure attachment pattern than non‐maltreated children, while the non‐maltreated children made use of significantly more drawing features linked to a secure attachment pattern. These results corresponded to scores on the Child Behaviour Checklist (Achenbach, 1991). All maltreated children scored in the clinical range. The family drawings of maltreated children significantly evidenced a greater distress − represented by an insecure attachment pattern – than the drawings of non‐maltreated children represented by a secure attachment style. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.‘The family drawings of maltreated children significantly evidenced a greater distress’

Illogical Thinking and Thought Disorder in Maltreated Children

To examine illogical thinking in children from low-income families with and without histories of child maltreatment. Maltreated (n = 91) and nonmaltreated (n = 43) school-age children individually participated in a story game designed to elicit speech samples. Children were instructed to listen to two recorded stories and prompted to retell the story; they then were asked to create their own story from possible topics. Child behavior ratings on the Child Behavior Checklist were completed by research assistants following 35 hours of observation. Maltreated children exhibited more illogical thinking than did nonmaltreated children, and the level of illogical thinking in maltreated children was in the clinically pathological range. The occurrence of multiple subtypes of maltreatment and the chronicity of the maltreatment also were associated with illogical thinking. Dissociation did not differ between groups, although it was related to illogical thinking. The ability to formulate ideas and communicate them logically is compromised in children who have been maltreated. These results extend prior research on selective attentional processes and negativity biases in maltreated children.

Affective facial expression processing in young children who have experienced maltreatment during the first year of life: An event-related potential study

This study employed event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate the neural correlates of facial affect processing in maltreated and nonmaltreated children at 42 months of age. ERPs elicited while children passively viewed standardized pictures of female models posing angry, happy, and neutral facial expressions were examined, and differences between maltreated (N = 46) and nonmaltreated (N = 25) children were reported. Three occipital components (P1, N170, and P400) and four frontal-central components (N150, P240, Nc, and a positive slow wave [PSW]) were identified. Findings revealed that maltreated children had greater P1 and P400 amplitude in response to angry facial affect compared to other emotions, and compared to nonmaltreated children. N170 amplitude was greater in response to happy compared to angry in the maltreated group. For the P240 component, maltreated children had greater amplitude in response to angry facial expressions relative to happy, whereas children in the nonmaltreated group had greater P240 amplitude in response to happy relative to angry facial affect. Further, the nonmaltreated group had greater PSW amplitude in response to angry facial affect, whereas those in the maltreated group showed greater PSW amplitude to happy facial expressions. The results provided further support for the hypothesis that the experience of maltreatment and the predominantly negative emotional tone in maltreating families alters the functioning of neural systems associated with the identification and processing of facial emotion. These results exemplify the importance of early preventive interventions focused on emotion for children who have experienced maltreatment early in life.

Pathways from childhood abuse and neglect to HIV-risk sexual behavior in middle adulthood.

This study examines the relationship between childhood abuse and neglect and sexual risk behavior in middle adulthood and whether psychosocial factors (risky romantic relationships, affective symptoms, drug and alcohol use, and delinquent and criminal behavior) mediate this relationship. Children with documented cases of physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect (ages 0-11) processed during 1967-1971 were matched with nonmaltreated children and followed into middle adulthood (approximate age 41). Mediators were assessed in young adulthood (approximate age 29) through in-person interviews between 1989 and 1995 and official arrest records through 1994 (N = 1,196). Past year HIV-risk sexual behavior was assessed via self-reports during 2003-2004 (N = 800). Logistic regression was used to examine differences in sexual risk behavior between the abuse and neglect and control groups, and latent variable structural equation modeling was used to test mediator models. Child abuse and neglect was associated with increased likelihood of risky sexual behavior in middle adulthood, odds ratio = 2.84, 95% CI [1.74, 4.64], p ≤ .001, and this relationship was mediated by risky romantic relationships in young adulthood. Results of this study draw attention to the potential long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect for physical health, in particular sexual risk, and point to romantic relationships as an important focus of intervention and prevention efforts.

Moderation of the association between childhood maltreatment and neuroticism by the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 gene

Neuroticism is a personality trait reflecting the tendency to experience negative affect. It is a major risk for psychopathology, especially depression and anxiety disorders. Childhood maltreatment is another major risk factor for psychopathology and may influence personality. Maltreatment may interact with genotype to predict developmental outcomes. Variation in three polymorphisms of the CRHR1 gene has been found to moderate the association of childhood maltreatment with depression, and we hypothesized that it would also be linked to neuroticism. Variation in three CRHR1 SNPs (rs110402, rs242924, rs7209436) was assessed in 339 maltreated and 275 demographically similar nonmaltreated children, who participated in a day camp research program. Maltreated children were further categorized based on the number of types of maltreatment they had experienced and the most severe form of maltreatment experienced. Genotype and maltreatment status were used to predict the Big Five personality traits, as assessed by camp counselors following a week of interaction with children. CRHR1 genotype significantly moderated the association of maltreatment with neuroticism but none of the other traits. Having two copies of the TAT haplotype of CRHR1 was associated with higher levels of neuroticism among maltreated children relative to nonmaltreated children, with the exception of sexually abused children and children who had experienced 3 or 4 types of abuse. Effects sizes of these interactions ranged from η2=.01 (p=.02) to η2=.03 (p=.006). Variation in CRHR1 moderates the association of maltreatment with neuroticism. The effects of specific types of maltreatment on neuroticism are differentially moderated by CRHR1 genotype, as are the effects of experiencing more or fewer types of maltreatment.