Non-local Thermodynamic Equilibrium Effects Research Articles

The GAPS programme at TNG. LXII. Studies of atmospheric FeII winds in ultra-hot Jupiters KELT-9b and KELT-20b using the HARPS-N spectrograph

Ultra-hot Jupiters (UHJs) are gas giant planets orbiting close to their host star, with equilibrium temperatures exceeding 2000 K, and among the most studied planets in terms of their atmospheric composition. Thanks to a new generation of ultra-stable high-resolution spectrographs, it is possible to detect the signal from the individual lines of the species in the exoplanetary atmospheres. We employed two techniques in this study. First, we used transmission spectroscopy, which involved examining the spectra around single lines of Fe ii . Then we carried out a set of cross-correlation studies for two UHJs: KELT-9b and KELT-20b. Both planets orbit fast-rotating stars, which resulted in the detection of the strong Rossiter-McLaughlin (RM) effect and center-to-limb variations in the transmission spectrum. These effects had to be corrected to ensure a precise analysis. Using the transmission spectroscopy method, we detected 21 single lines of Fe ii in the atmosphere of KELT-9b. All of the detected lines are blue-shifted, suggesting strong day-to-night side atmospheric winds. The cross-correlation method leads to the detection of the blue-shifted signal with a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of 13.46. Our results are in agreement with models based on non-local thermodynamical equilibrium (NLTE) effects, with a mean micro-turbulence of $ mic $ and macro-turbulence of $ mac $. In the atmosphere of KELT-20b, we detected 17 single lines of Fe ii . Considering different measurements of the systemic velocity of the system, we conclude that the existence of winds in the atmosphere of KELT-20b cannot be determined conclusively. The detected signal with the cross-correlation method presents a S/N of 11.51. The results are consistent with NLTE effects, including means of $ mic $ and $ mac

Abundances of neutron-capture elements in selected solar-type stars

The primary objective of this study is to accurately determine the abundances of Cu, Sr, Y, Zr, Ba, La, and Ce in selected solar-type stars. This will allow us to establish observational abundance--metallicity and abundance--age relations and to explore the reasons for the excess of Ba compared to other $s$-elements in younger solar-type stars. The chosen $s$-process elements are critical diagnostics for understanding the chemical evolution of our Galaxy. We analysed HARPS spectra with a high resolution ($R$ = 115\,000) and high signal-to-noise ratio (close to 100) of main-sequence solar-type FGK stars with metallicities from $-0.15$ to +0.35 dex and ages from 2 to 14 Gyr using one-dimensional (1D) local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) synthesis and MARCS atmospheric models. In the procedure of fitting synthetic to observed line profiles, the free parameters included abundance and microturbulent and macroturbulent velocity. The macroturbulent velocity can substantially compensate for non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) effects in the line core. The resulting elemental abundance X/H increases with metallicity and age for solar-type stars. The ratio of the abundances of $s$-process elements s/Fe increases with decreasing metallicity and age, while the Cu/Fe ratio increases with both metallicity and age. These observed trends agree well with published observational data and with predictions from Galactic chemical evolution (GCE) models. A small Ba/Fe enhancement of 0.08 ± 0.08 dex has been detected in seven younger stars with an average age of $2.8 0.6$ Gyr. Compared to the abundances of other $s$-process elements Ba/Fe is 0.07 and 0.08 dex higher than La and Ce on average, respectively. Furthermore, we find that the Ba/Fe ratio increases with increasing chromospheric activity. The average Ba/Fe for the three most active stars is $0.15 0.10$ dex higher than that of the other stars. Chromospheric activity, characterised by stronger magnetic fields found in active regions such as pores, spots, plages, and networks, can significantly alter the physical conditions in the formation layers of the Ba lines. Our primary conclusion is that to account for the observed excess of Ba/Fe abundance in younger stars, it is essential to use more complex atmospheric models that incorporate magnetic structures.

Discovery of an Extremely r-process-enhanced Thin-disk Star with [Eu/H] = +0.78

Highly r-process-enhanced (RPE) stars are rare and usually metal poor ([Fe/H] < −1.0), and they mainly populate the Milky Way halo and dwarf galaxies. This study presents the discovery of a relatively bright (V = 12.72), highly RPE (r-II) star ([Eu/Fe] = +1.32, [Ba/Eu] = −0.95), LAMOST J020623.21+494127.9. This star was selected from the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fiber Spectroscopic Telescope medium-resolution (R ∼ 7500) spectroscopic survey; follow-up high-resolution (R ∼ 25,000) observations were conducted with the High Optical Resolution Spectrograph installed on the Gran Telescopio Canarias. The stellar parameters (T eff = 4130 K, logg = 1.52, [Fe/H] = −0.54, ξ = 1.80 km s−1) have been inferred taking into account nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium effects. The abundances of [Ce/Fe], [Pr/Fe], and [Nd/Fe] are +0.19, +0.65, and +0.64, respectively, relatively low compared to the Solar r-process pattern normalized to Eu. This star has a high metallicity ([Fe/H] = −0.54) compared to most other highly RPE stars and has the highest measured abundance ratio of Eu to H ([Eu/H] = +0.78). It is classified as a thin-disk star based on its kinematics and does not appear to belong to any known stream or dwarf galaxy.

On the Pair-instability Supernova Origin of J1010+2358* * Based on observations made with the Very Large Telescope (VLT) of the ESO at the La Silla Paranal Observatory under the program ID 112.26WJ.001

The first (Population III) stars formed only out of H and He and were likely more massive than present-day stars. Massive Population III stars in the range 140–260 M ⊙ are predicted to end their lives as pair-instability supernovae (PISNe), enriching the environment with a unique abundance pattern, with high ratios of odd to even elements. Recently, the most promising candidate for a pure descendant of a zero-metallicity massive PISN (260 M ⊙) was discovered by the LAMOST survey, the star J1010+2358. However, key elements to verify the high PISN contribution, C and Al, were missing from the analysis. To rectify this, we obtained and analyzed a high-resolution Very Large Telescope/UVES spectrum, correcting for 3D and/or non-local thermodynamic equilibrium effects. Our measurements of both C and Al give much higher values (∼1 dex) than expected from a 260 M ⊙ PISN. Furthermore, we find significant discrepancies with the previous analysis and therefore a much less pronounced odd–even pattern. Our results show that J1010+2358 cannot be a pure descendant of a 260 M ⊙ PISN. Instead, we find that the best-fit model consists of a 13 M ⊙ Population II core-collapse supernova combined with a Population III supernova. Alternative, less favored solutions ( χ2/χbest2≈2.3 ) include a 50% contribution from a 260 M ⊙ PISN or a 40% contribution from a Population III Type Ia supernova. Ultimately, J1010+2358 is certainly a unique star giving insights into the earliest chemical enrichment; however, this star is not a pure PISN descendant.

One-dimensional, geometrically stratified semi-empirical models of the quiet-Sun photosphere and lower chromosphere

One-dimensional, semi-empirical models of the solar atmosphere are widely employed in numerous contexts within solar physics, ranging from the determination of element abundances and atomic parameters to studies of the solar irradiance and from Stokes inversions to coronal extrapolations. These models provide the physical parameters (i.e. temperature, gas pressure, etc.) in the solar atmosphere as a function of the continuum optical depth $ c $. The transformation to the geometrical $z$ scale (i.e. vertical coordinate) is provided via vertical hydrostatic equilibrium. Our aim is to provide updated, one-dimensional, semi-empirical models of the solar atmosphere as a function of $z,$ but employing the more general case of three-dimensional magneto-hydrostatic equilibrium (MHS) instead of vertical hydrostatic equilibrium (HE). We employed a recently developed Stokes inversion code that, along with non-local thermodynamic equilibrium effects, considers MHS instead of HE. This code is applied to spatially and temporally resolved spectropolarimetric observations of the quiet Sun obtained with the CRISP instrument attached to the Swedish Solar Telescope. We provide average models for granules, intergranules, dark magnetic elements, and overall quiet-Sun as a function of both $ c $ and $z$ from the photosphere to the lower chromosphere. We demonstrate that, in these quiet-Sun models, the effect of considering MHS instead of HE is negligible. However, employing MHS increases the consistency of the inversion results before averaging. We surmise that in regions with stronger magnetic fields (i.e. pores, sunspots, network) the benefits of employing the magneto-hydrostatic approximation will be much more palpable.

Searching for NLTE effects in the high-resolution transmission spectrum of WASP-121 b with cloudy for exoplanets

ABSTRACT Ultrahot Jupiters (UHJs) undergo intense irradiation by their host stars and are expected to experience non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) effects in their atmospheres. Such effects are computationally intensive to model but, at the low pressures probed by high-resolution cross-correlation spectroscopy (HRCCS), can significantly impact the formation of spectral lines. The UHJ WASP-121 b exhibits a highly inflated atmosphere, making it ideal for investigating the impact of NLTE effects on its transmission spectrum. Here, we formally introduce cloudy for exoplanets, a cloudy-based modelling code, and use it to generate 1D LTE and NLTE atmospheric models and spectra to analyse archival HARPS WASP-121 b transmission spectra. We assessed the models using two HRCCS methods: (i) Pearson cross-correlation, and (ii) a method that aims to match the average observed line depth for given atmospheric species. All models result in strong detections of Fe i (7.5 &amp;lt; S/N &amp;lt; 10.5). However, the highest S/N model (LTE) does not agree with the best-matching model of the average line depth (NLTE). We also find degeneracy, such that increasing the isothermal temperature and metallicity of the LTE models can produce average line depths similar to cooler, less metal rich NLTE models. Thus, we are unable to conclusively remark on the presence of NLTE effects in the atmosphere of WASP-121 b. We instead highlight the need for standardized metrics in HRCCS that enable robust statistical assessment of complex physical models, e.g. NLTE or 3D effects, that are currently too computationally intensive to include in HRCCS atmospheric retrievals.

Observational constraints on the origin of the elements

Context. The chemical evolution history of slow neutron-capture elements in the Milky Way is still a matter of debate, especially in the metal-poor regime ([Fe/H] &lt; −1). Aims. Based on Gaia-ESO spectroscopic data, a recent study investigated the chemical evolution of neutron-capture elements in the regime [Fe/H] &gt; −1. Here, we aim to complement this study down to [Fe/H] = −3, and focus on Ba, Y, and Sr, along with the abundance ratios of [Ba/Y] and [Sr/Y], which give comprehensive views on s-process nucleosynthesis channels. Methods. We measured the local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) and non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) abundances of Ba, Y, and Sr in 323 Galactic metal-poor stars using high-resolution optical spectra with high signal-to-noise ratios. We used the spectral fitting code TSFitPy together with 1D model atmospheres, using previously determined LTE and NLTE atmospheric parameters. Results. We find that the NLTE effects are on the order of ∼ − 0.1 to ∼0.2 dex, depending on the element. We find that stars enhanced (deficient) in [Ba/Fe] and [Y/Fe] are also enhanced (deficient) in [Sr/Fe], suggesting a common evolution channel for these three elements. We find that the ratio between heavy and light s-process elements [Ba/Y] varies weakly with [Fe/H] even in the metal-poor regime, which is consistent with the behaviour in the metal-rich regime. The [Ba/Y] scatter at a given metallicity is larger than the abundance measurement uncertainties. Homogeneous chemical evolution models with different yield prescriptions are not able to accurately reproduce the [Ba/Y] scatter in the low-[Fe/H] regime. Adopting the stochastic chemical evolution model by Cescutti &amp; Chiappini allows us to reproduce the observed scatter in the abundance pattern of [Ba/Y] and [Ba/Sr]. Based on our observations, we have ruled out the need for an arbitrary scaling of the r-process contribution, as previously suggested by the authors behind the construction of the model. Conclusions. We show how important it is to properly include NLTE effects when measuring chemical abundances, especially in the metal-poor regime. This work demonstrates that the choice of the Galactic chemical evolution model (stochastic versus one-zone) is key when comparing models to observations. Upcoming large-scale spectroscopic surveys such as 4MOST and WEAVE are poised to deliver high-quality data for many thousands of metal-poor stars and this work gives a typical case study of what could be achieved with such surveys in the future.

He abundance in NGC 1850 A and B: Are we observing the early stage of the formation of multiple populations in a stellar cluster?

ABSTRACT We present the results for a sample of B stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud young double stellar cluster NGC 1850 A and NGC 1850 B, as observed with the integral-field spectrograph at the Very Large Telescope, the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE). We compare the observed equivalent widths (EWs) of four He lines (4922, 5015, 6678, and 7065 Å) with those determined from synthetic spectra computed with different He mass fractions (Y = 0.25, 0.27, 0.30, and 0.35) with the code synspec, which takes into account the non-local thermodynamic equilibrium effect. From this comparison, we determine the He mass fraction of the B stars, finding a distribution that is not homogeneous. The stars can be divided in three groups: He-weak (Y &amp;lt; 0.24) and He-normal (0.24 ≤ Y ≤ 0.26) stars, belonging to the main sequence of NGC 1850 A, and He-rich stars (0.33 ≤ Y ≤ 0.38), situated in the main sequence associated with NGC 1850 B. We analyse the stellar rotation as possibly being responsible for the anomalous features of the He lines in the He-rich stars. We provide a simple analysis of the differences between the observed EWs and those obtained from theoretical models with different rotation velocities (Vsini = 0 and 250 km s–1). The resolution of the MUSE spectra does not allow us to obtain a conclusive result; however, our analysis support the He-enhanced hypothesis.

NLTE Analysis of High-Resolution H-Band Spectra, V: Neutral Sodium

In order to derive sodium abundances and investigate the effects of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) on the formation of H-band Na I lines, we update the sodium atomic model by incorporating collision rates with hydrogen from new quantum-mechanical calculations. The differential Na abundances for 13 sample stars are obtained by analyzing high-resolution H-band spectra from the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE) and optical spectra under both local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) and NLTE conditions. Consistent abundances from both bands suggest that our updated atomic model is valid for studying the formation of H-band Na I lines. Our calculations show that, in our stellar parameter space, NLTE effects are negative and can result in corrections larger than −0.4 dex on optical lines. The corrections on H-band Na I lines are typically small, within about 0.05 dex, but not negligible if accurate sodium abundance is desired. We note that the [Na/Fe] ratios favor the theoretical galactic chemical model.

Observational constraints on the origin of the elements

Aims. We constrain the role of different Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) channels in the chemical enrichment of the Galaxy by studying the abundances of nickel in Galactic stars. We investigated four different SN Ia sub-classes, including the classical single-degenerate near-Chandrasekhar mass (Mch) SN Ia, the fainter SN Iax systems associated with He accretion from the companion, as well as two sub-Chandrasekhar mass (sub-Mch) SN Ia channels. The latter include the double detonation of a white dwarf accreting helium-rich matter and violent white dwarf mergers. Methods. The chemical abundances in Galactic stars were determined using Gaia eDR3 astrometry and photometry and high-resolution optical spectra. Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) models of Fe and Ni were used in the abundance analysis. We included new delay-time distributions arising from the different SN Ia channels in models of the Galactic chemical evolution, as well as recent yields for core-collapse supernovae and asymptotic giant branch stars. The data-model comparison was performed using a Markov chain Monte Carlo framework that allowed us to explore the entire parameter space allowed by the diversity of explosion mechanisms and the Galactic SN Ia rate, taking the uncertainties of the observed data into account. Results. We show that NLTE effects have a non-negligible impact on the observed [Ni/Fe] ratios in the Galactic stars. The NLTE corrections to Ni abundances are not large, but strictly positive, lifting the [Ni/Fe] ratios by ∼ + 0.15 dex at [Fe/H] −2. We find that the distributions of [Ni/Fe] in LTE and in NLTE are very tight, with a scatter of ≲0.1 dex at all metallicities. This supports earlier work. In LTE, most stars have scaled solar Ni abundances, [Ni/Fe] ≈ 0, with a slight tendency for sub-solar [Ni/Fe] ratios at lower [Fe/H]. In NLTE, however, we find a mild anti-correlation between [Ni/Fe] and metallicity, and slightly elevated [Ni/Fe] ratios at [Fe/H] ≲ −1.0. The NLTE data can be explained by models of the Galactic chemical evolution that are calculated with a substantial fraction, ∼75%, of sub-Mch SN Ia.

The GAPS programme at TNG

Aims. We aim to extract the transmission spectrum of the HI Balmer lines of the ultra-hot Jupiter (UHJ) KELT-20b/MASCARA-2b from observations and to further compare the results with what was obtained through forward modelling, accounting for non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) effects. Methods. We extracted the line profiles from six transits obtained with the HARPS-N high-resolution spectrograph attached to the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo telescope. We computed the temperature-pressure (TP) profile employing the HELIOS code in the lower atmosphere and the CLOUDY NLTE code in the middle and upper atmosphere. We further used CLOUDY to compute the theoretical planetary transmission spectrum in LTE and NLTE for comparison with observations. Results. We detected the Hα (0.79±0.03%; 1.25 Rp), Ηβ (0.52±0.03%; 1.17 Rp), and Ηγ (0.39±0.06%; 1.13 Rp) lines, and we detected the Ηδ line at almost 4σ (0.27±0.07%; 1.09 Rp). The models predict an isothermal temperature of ≈2200 K at pressures &gt;10−2 bar and of ≈7700 K at pressures &lt;10−8 bar, with a roughly linear temperature rise in between. In the middle and upper atmosphere, the NLTE TP profile is up to ~3000 K hotter than in LTE. The synthetic transmission spectrum derived from the NLTE TP profile is in good agreement with the observed HI Balmer line profiles, validating our obtained atmospheric structure. Instead, the synthetic transmission spectrum derived from the LTE TP profile leads to significantly weaker absorption compared to the observations. Conclusions. Metals appear to be the primary agents leading to the temperature inversion in UHJs, and the impact of NLTE effects on them increases the magnitude of the inversion. We find that the impact of NLTE effects on the TP profile of KELT-20b/MASCARA-2b is larger than for the hotter UHJ KELT-9b, and thus NLTE effects might also be relevant for planets cooler than KELT-20b/MASCARA-2b.

Monte Carlo method for investigating population kinetics in non-local thermodynamic equilibrium plasmas

We propose a new method to solve the collisional-radiative (CR) model with the Monte Carlo method for investigating population kinetics of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium plasmas. The CR model is solved using massive sample particles accounting detailed energy levels. Whether an atom/ion undergoes an ionization/excitation/decay process is determined by probabilities calculated from ionization cross-sections, excitation and decay rates. By continuously iterating this process for massive atoms/ions, the ionization population distribution is obtained. The numerical convergence can be achieved for a mid-Z element using 103 particles in the Monte Carlo simulation. The results of the Monte Carlo simulations are compared with other methods and experimental results. The self emission spectra of silicon plasma is obtained and the ionization population distribution of silicon and iron plasmas are calculated. The proposed method can be used to interpret high energy density experiments and astrophysical phenomena where non-local thermodynamic equilibrium effects play vital roles.

Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium analysis of the methylidyne radical molecular lines in metal-poor stellar atmospheres

Aims. An analysis of the methylidyne (CH) radical in non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) is performed for the physical conditions of cool stellar atmospheres typical of red giants (log ɡ = 2.0, Teff = 4500 K) and the Sun. The aim of the present work is to explore whether the G band of the CH molecule, which is commonly used in abundance diagnostics of carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars, is sensitive to NLTE effects. Methods. LTE and NLTE theoretical spectra were computed with the MULTI code. We used one-dimensional (1D) LTE hydrostatic MARCS model atmospheres with parameters representing eleven red giant stars with metallicities ranging from [Fe/H] = −4.0 to [Fe/H] = 0.0 and carbon-to-iron ratios of [C/Fe] = 0.0, +0.7, +1.5, and +3.0. The CH molecule model was represented by 1981 energy levels, 18 377 radiative bound-bound transitions, and 932 photo-dissociation reactions. The rates due to transitions caused by collisions with free electrons and hydrogen atoms were computed using classical recipes. Results. Our calculations suggest that NLTE effects in the statistical equilibrium of the CH molecule are significant and cannot be neglected for precision spectroscopic analysis of C abundances. The NLTE effects are mostly driven by radiative over-dissociation, owing to the very low dissociation threshold of the molecule and significant resonances in the photo-dissociation cross-sections. The NLTE effects in the G band increase with decreasing metallicity. When comparing the C abundances determined from the CH G band in LTE and in NLTE, we show that the C abundances are always under-estimated if LTE is assumed. The NLTE corrections to C abundance inferred from the CH feature range from +0.04 dex for the Sun to +0.21 dex for a red giant with metallicity [Fe/H] = −4.0. Conclusions. Departures from the LTE assumption in the CH molecule are non-negligible, and NLTE effects have to be taken into account in the diagnostic spectroscopy based on the CH lines. We show here that the NLTE effects in the optical CH lines are non-negligible for the Sun and red giant stars, but further calculations are warranted to investigate the effects in other regimes of stellar parameters.

Non-LTE formation of the Fe I 6173 Å line in the solar atmosphere

The current analysis is dedicated to a detailed investigation of the non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) effects influencing the formation of the Fe I 6173 Å line, which is widely used by many instruments, including the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and the Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager on board the Solar Orbiter. We synthesize the Stokes profiles in a snapshot of a three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulation of the solar photosphere under both LTE and NLTE conditions. The simulation cube contains a sunspot and a plage region around it. The LTE and NLTE Stokes profiles formed in different features are compared and analysed. NLTE effects are evident in both intensity and polarization profiles. For the 6173 Å line, UV overionization is the dominant NLTE mechanism, and scattering effects are much less important. In addition to Fe, an NLTE treatment of Si, Mg, and Al is necessary to set the right photon density in the UV. This is found to further enhance the LTE departures compared to the case where Fe alone is treated in NLTE. These effects in the Stokes profiles survive even when the profiles are averaged spatially or sampled on a coarse wavelength grid such as that used by the SDO/HMI and other magnetographs. The deviations from the LTE profiles are stronger in the Fe I 6173 Å compared to the 6301 Å–6302 Å lines because in the latter case, line scattering compensates the effect of UV overionization. Based on the nature of departures from LTE, treating the 6173 Å line in LTE will likely result in an overestimation of temperature and an underestimation of the magnetic field strength.

A high-resolution spectroscopic search for multiple populations in the 2 Gyr old cluster NGC 1846

ABSTRACT We present detailed C, O, Na, Mg, Si, Ca, Ti, V, Fe, Zr, Ba, and Eu abundance measurements for 20 red giant branch (RGB) stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) star cluster NGC 1846 ([Fe/H] = −0.59). This cluster is 1.95 Gyr old and lies just below the supposed lower age limit (2 Gyr) for the presence of multiple populations in massive star clusters. Our measurements are based on high- and low-resolution VLT/FLAMES spectra combined with photometric data from Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Corrections for non-local thermodynamic equilibrium effects are also included for O, Na, Mg, Si, Ca, Fe, and Ba. Our results show that there is no evidence for multiple populations in this cluster based on the lack of any intrinsic star-to-star spread in the abundances of Na and O: We place 95 per cent confidence limits on the intrinsic dispersion for these elements of ≤0.07 and ≤0.09 dex, respectively. However, we do detect a significant spread in the carbon abundances, indicating varying evolutionary mixing occurring on the RGB that increases with luminosity. Overall, the general abundance patterns for NGC 1846 are similar to those seen in previous studies of intermediate-age LMC star clusters and field stars.

The solar photospheric silicon abundance according to CO5BOLD

Context. In this work, we present a photospheric solar silicon abundance derived using CO5BOLD model atmospheres and the LINFOR3D spectral synthesis code. Previous works have differed in their choice of a spectral line sample and model atmosphere as well as their treatment of observational material, and the solar silicon abundance has undergone a downward revision in recent years. We additionally show the effects of the chosen line sample, broadening due to velocity fields, collisional broadening, model spatial resolution, and magnetic fields. Aims. Our main aim is to derive the photospheric solar silicon abundance using updated oscillator strengths and to mitigate model shortcomings such as over-broadening of synthetic spectra. We also aim to investigate the effects of different line samples, fitting configurations, and magnetic fields on the fitted abundance and broadening values. Methods. CO5BOLD model atmospheres for the Sun were used in conjunction with the LINFOR3D spectral synthesis code to generate model spectra, which were then fit to observations in the Hamburg solar atlas. We took pixel-to-pixel signal correlations into account by means of a correlated noise model. The choice of line sample is crucial to determining abundances, and we present a sample of 11 carefully selected lines (from an initial choice of 39 lines) in both the optical and infrared, which has been made possible with newly determined oscillator strengths for the majority of these lines. Our final sample includes seven optical Si i lines, three infrared Si i lines, and one optical Si ii line. Results. We derived a photospheric solar silicon abundance of log εSi = 7.57 ± 0.04, including a −0.01 dex correction from Non-Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (NLTE) effects. Combining this with meteoritic abundances and previously determined photospheric abundances results in a metal mass fraction Z/X = 0.0220 ± 0.0020. We found a tendency of obtaining overly broad synthetic lines. We mitigated the impact of this by devising a de-broadening procedure. The over-broadening of synthetic lines does not substantially affect the abundance determined in the end. It is primarily the line selection that affects the final fitted abundance.

High-resolution near-infrared spectroscopy of globular cluster and field stars toward the Galactic bulge

Globular clusters (GCs) play an important role in the formation and evolution of the Milky Way. New candidates are continuously found, particularly in the high-extinction low-latitude regions of the bulge, although their existence and properties have yet to be verified. In order to investigate the new GC candidates, we performed high-resolution near-infrared spectroscopy of stars toward the Galactic bulge using the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrometer (IGRINS) instrument at the Gemini-South telescope. We selected 15 and 10 target stars near Camargo 1103 and Camargo 1106, respectively, which have recently been reported as metal-poor GC candidates in the bulge. In contrast to the classical approaches used in optical spectroscopy, we determined stellar parameters from a combination of line-depth ratios and the equivalent width of a CO line. The stellar parameters of the stars follow the common trends of nearby APOGEE sample stars in a similar magnitude range. We also determined the abundances of Fe, Na, Mg, Al, Si, S, K, Ca, Ti, Cr, Ni, and Ce through spectrum synthesis. There is no clear evidence of a grouping in radial velocity – metallicity space that would indicate the characterization of either object as metal-poor GCs. This result emphasizes the necessity of follow-up spectroscopy for new GC candidates toward the bulge, although we cannot completely rule out a low probability that we only observed nonmember stars. We also note discrepancies between the abundances of Al, Ca, and Ti when derived from the H- versus the K-band spectra. Although the cause of this discrepancy is not clear, the effects of atmosphere parameters or nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium are discussed. Our approach and results demonstrate that IGRINS spectroscopy is a useful tool for studying the chemical properties of stars toward the Galactic bulge with a statistical uncertainty in [Fe/H] of ∼0.03 dex, while the systematic error through uncertainties of atmospheric parameter determination, at ∼0.14 dex, is slightly larger than in measurements from optical spectroscopy.

Chromospheric extension of the MURaM code

Context. Detailed numerical models of the chromosphere and corona are required to understand the heating of the solar atmosphere. An accurate treatment of the solar chromosphere is complicated by the effects arising from non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) radiative transfer. A small number of strong, highly scattering lines dominate the cooling and heating in the chromosphere. Additionally, the recombination times of ionised hydrogen are longer than the dynamical timescales, requiring a non-equilibrium (NE) treatment of hydrogen ionisation. Aims. We describe a set of necessary additions to the MURaM code that allow it to handle some of the important NLTE effects. We investigate the impact on solar chromosphere models caused by NLTE and NE effects in radiation magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the solar atmosphere. Methods. The MURaM code was extended to include the physical process required for an accurate simulation of the solar chromosphere, as implemented in the Bifrost code. This includes a time-dependent treatment of hydrogen ionisation, a scattering multi-group radiation transfer scheme, and approximations for NLTE radiative cooling. Results. The inclusion of NE and NLTE physics has a large impact on the structure of the chromosphere; the NE treatment of hydrogen ionisation leads to a higher ionisation fraction and enhanced populations in the first excited state throughout cold inter-shock regions of the chromosphere. Additionally, this prevents hydrogen ionisation from buffering energy fluctuations, leading to hotter shocks and cooler inter-shock regions. The hydrogen populations in the ground and first excited state are enhanced by 102–103 in the upper chromosphere and by up to 109 near the transition region. Conclusions. Including the necessary NLTE physics leads to significant differences in chromospheric structure and dynamics. The thermodynamics and hydrogen populations calculated using the extended version of the MURaM code are consistent with previous non-equilibrium simulations. The electron number and temperature calculated using the non-equilibrium treatment of the chromosphere are required to accurately synthesise chromospheric spectral lines.

Stellar labels for hot stars from low-resolution spectra

We set out to determine stellar labels from low-resolution survey spectra of hot stars, specifically OBA stars with Teff ≳ 7500 K. This fills a gap in the scientific analysis of large spectroscopic stellar surveys such as LAMOST, which offers spectra for millions of stars at R ~ 1800 and covers 3800 Å ≤ λ ≤ 9000 Å. We first explore the theoretical information content of such spectra to determine stellar labels via the Cramér-Rao bound. We show that in the limit of perfect model spectra and observed spectra with signal-to-noise ratio ~50–100, precise estimates are possible for a wide range of stellar labels: not only the effective temperature, Teff, surface gravity, log g, and projected rotation velocity, vsin i, but also the micro-turbulence velocity,vmic, helium abundance, NHe/Ntot, and the elemental abundances [C/H], [N/H], [O/H], [Si/H], [S/H], and [Fe/H]. Our analysis illustrates that the temperature regime of Teff ~ 9500 K is challenging as the dominant Balmer and Paschen line strengths vary little with Teff. We implement the simultaneous fitting of these 11 stellar labels to LAMOST hot-star spectra using the Payne approach, drawing on Kurucz’s ATLAS12/SYNTHE local thermodynamic equilibrium spectra as the underlying models. We then obtain stellar parameter estimates for a sample of about 330 000 hot stars with LAMOST spectra, an increase by about two orders of magnitude in sample size. Among them, about 260 000 have good Gaia parallaxes (ω/σω &gt; 5), and their luminosities imply that ≳95% of them are luminous stars, mostly on the main sequence; the rest are evolved lower luminosity stars, such as hot subdwarfs and white dwarfs. We show that the fidelity of the results, particularly for the abundance estimates, is limited by the systematics of the underlying models as they do not account for nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium effects. Finally, we show the detailed distribution of vsin i of stars with 8000–15 000 K, illustrating that it extends to a sharp cutoff at the critical rotation velocity, vcrit, across a wide range of temperatures.

NLTE effects on kilonova expansion opacities

ABSTRACT A binary neutron star merger produces a rapidly evolving transient known as a kilonova (KN), which peaks a few days after merger. Modelling of KNe has often been approached assuming local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) conditions in the ejecta. We present the first analysis of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) level populations, using the spectral synthesis code sumo, and compare these to LTE values. We investigate the importance of the radiation field by conducting NLTE excitation calculations with and without radiative transfer. Level populations, in particular higher lying ones, start to show deviations from LTE several days after merger. Excitation is lower in NLTE for the majority of ions and states, and this tends to give lower expansion opacities. While the difference is small for the first few days, it grows to factors 2–10 after this. Our results are important both for demonstrating validity of LTE expansion opacities for an initial phase (less than a week), while highlighting the need for NLTE modelling during later phases. Considering also NLTE ionization, our results indicate that NLTE can give both higher or lower opacities, depending on composition and wavelength, sometimes by orders of magnitudes.