Non-ionizing Radiation Exposure Research Articles

Unveiling the Impact: Human Exposure to Non-Ionizing Radiation in the Millimeter-Wave Band of Sixth-Generation Wireless Networks

The investigation into potential hazards linked with millimeter-wave (mmWave) radiation is crucial, given the widespread adoption of body-centric wireless sensor nodes operating within this frequency band. This is particularly pertinent in light of its envisaged use for the upcoming 5G/6G networks and beyond. As 6G is anticipated to leverage a broad spectrum, including both sub-6 GHz and mmWave bands (30–300 GHz), concerns arise regarding increased human exposure to non-ionizing radiation (NIR). This work highlights the advantages of deploying 6G in the mmWave band, focusing on evaluating human body exposure to NIR interactions. Additionally, this research aims to address mmWave NIR exposure by introducing a Distributed Base Station (DBS) network. Utilizing low-power remote antennas to extend network coverage, the DBS architecture seeks to effectively minimize NIR’s impact without compromising overall network performance. The findings underscore the significant potential of the DBS approach in mitigating NIR-related concerns associated with mmWave utilization in 6G networks.

Survey of Delivery Outcomes for Employees at MR Imaging Facilities in Japan Based on Information Recorded in the Maternal and Child Health Handbook.

The effect of maternal occupational non-ionizing radiation (NIR) exposure from MRI on premature birth and low birth weight delivery was analyzed based on questionnaire survey (263 employees, 443 births). Although the highest occurrence rates of both outcomes were observed in the group whose NIR exposure occurred only before pregnancy, no statistical significance was detected.

Assessment of public awareness on the effects of exposure to non-ionizing radiation sources in Tanzania

Devices, equipment and facilities producing Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) are all around human environment. Exposure to NIR has effects to humans. Humans need to be aware of such effects as they are working with NIR sources and are working and living close to them. The objective of this research was to study public awareness on possible effects of exposure to NIR. The research was conducted in Mwanza, Dodoma and Dar es salaam regions in Tanzania. Through survey, respondents were approached and voluntarily requested to complete a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics was employed in data analysis and frequencies were computed to determine the counts and their percentages, and Chi-Square test of independence determined the existence of significant relationship between awareness statements and demographic variables. The research involved 600 respondents (314 (52.3%) males, 286 (47.7%) females). Results show that most respondents were aware of the effects of exposure to NIR and females were more aware than males. Awareness did not differ across education levels and respondents with no/low education showed the same level of awareness as those with higher education. Based on age, respondents of all age groups demonstrated awareness of NIR effects. However, some practices like mobile phone use, watching TVs, conducting activities or living near NIR sources, are exposing people to NIR. To make people more aware of NIR exposure effects, it is recommended awareness campaigns and training be provided to the public; to minimize NIR exposure, policies, regulations and guidelines be enforced by regulatory bodies and be observed by organs owning sources producing NIR. The essence is to ensure cases of effects due to NIR exposure are minimized.

Assessment of protein and DNA polymorphisms in corn (Zea mays) under the effect of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation

Many reports highlight biological responses of crop plants after non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exposure based on the phenotypic and physiological levels. So, this study aimed to estimate genetic alterations in proteins, isozymes, and DNA banding patterns as well as the extent of nuclear DNA damage of economic corn (Zea mays) under the stress of EMR using accurate and reliable bioassays like sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), isozymes (Leucine- aminopeptidase, Esterases, Peroxidase, and Catalases), random amplified polymorphic DNA- polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR), and Comet Assay, respectively. SDS-PAGE analysis showed distinct polymorphisms (96.66%) between EMR exposed and non-exposed corn seedlings depending on the number and type of bands, their intensities as well as molecular weight which ranged from (60.27 to 192.35 kDa), gain, and loss of bands. The four isozymes generated varies isozymatic polymorphisms based on relative front, zymogram number, and optical intensities. RAPD analysis generated 85 amplified DNA products with high polymorphism values ranged from 90.91 to 100% based on primers, band type, DNA sizes which ranged from 153 to 1008-bp, lose, gain, and intensity of DNA bands. Comet Assay scored highest extent of loosed DNA from nuclei (DNA damage) reached the value of (tailed ratio 20%) at EMR exposed corn nuclei for 5 days compared to non-exposed nuclei which reached the value of (tailed ratio 3%). This study concluded that each EMR exposure time had unique interaction with proteins, isozymes, and DNA of corn cells exhibiting wide range of genotoxic stress and subsequently, adversely effect on growth and yield of this sensitive crop plants.

Residential exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation from mobile base stations: a systematic review on biological effects assessment

The effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation from cellular base station exposure on human health are discussed in this review. Because of technological development, electromagnetic emissions are present at high levels in human existence. Due to the health risks linked with exposure to electromagnetic radiation (EMR), its effects are known. The systematic review work was done to identify measured values of non-ionizing radiation (such as power density and electric and magnetic fields) emitted by phones and GSM base stations, along with any potential biological consequences connected with the measured values. In the literature, all measurements of power density, electric fields, and magnetic fields were made using various instruments over a variety of base station distances and times. The findings from the literature showed that the non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation's power density, electric field, and magnetic field varied with distance from the tower and were highest at the closest distances. The findings also demonstrate that, in some situations, home exposure levels to base station-emitted non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation are within the limit. In some instances, however, the situation varies, and persons living close to base stations experience health effects from high levels of non-ionizing electromagnetic field exposure. The biological effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation exposure in homes are summarized in this article. Numerous studies to date have established the dangers of mobile phone base station radiation to people and wildlife. The negative biological effects of exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation were compiled from numerous articles. Residents who are exposed to higher levels of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation at home are more likely to experience symptoms like fatigue, nausea, disturbed sleep, discomfort, headache, memory loss, skin problems, visual disturbances, hearing problems, dizziness, muscle pain, DNA damage, and infertility. Some mobile base stations are situated quite close to homes and commercial buildings, putting individuals at risk from the base stations' electromagnetic radiation. Depending on the infrastructure impediment, such as interior obstructions or buildings, the emf changed from location to location. As a result, cellular mobile towers shouldn't be placed closer than 200 meters from residential structures.

The effects of long-term prenatal exposure to 900, 1800, and 2100MHz electromagnetic field radiation on myocardial tissue of rats.

It is well-known that wireless communication technologies facilitate human life. However, the harmful effects of electromagnetic field (EMF) radiation on the human body should not be ignored. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of long-term, prenatal exposure to EMF radiation on the myocardium of rats at varying durations. Overall, 18 pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned into six groups (n = 3 in each group). In all groups other than the control group, three pregnant rats were exposed to EMF radiation (900, 1800 and 2100MHz) for 6, 12 and 24h over 20 days. After delivery, the newborn male pups were identified and six newborn male pups from each group were randomly selected. Then, histopathological and biochemical analysis of myocardial samples were performed. When 24-h/day prenatal exposures to 900, 1800, 2100MHz EMF radiation were evaluated, myocardial damage was greater in the 2100MHz EMF-24h group than the other groups. In addition, when malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels associated with reactive oxidative species (ROS) were evaluated, the MDA level was higher in the 2100MHz EMF-24h group compared with the other groups. The GSH level was also lower in the 2100MHz EMF-24h group. When the 6, 12 and 24h/day prenatal exposures to 1800MHz EMF radiation were evaluated, myocardial damage was greater in 1800MHz EMF-24h group than the remaining groups (p < 0.0001). Also, MDA level was greater in the 1800MHz EMF-24h group compared with the other groups while the GSH level was lower in this group. It was shown that myocardial tissue was affected more by long-term exposure to EMF radiation at high frequencies. The data raise concerns that the harmful effects of non-ionizing radiation exposure on cardiac tissue will increase with 5G technology.

Role of Intestinal Ultrasound in the Management of Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) has gained popularity as a first line technique for the diagnosis and monitoring of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) due to its many advantages. It is a non-invasive imaging technique with non-ionizing radiation exposure. It can be easily performed not only by radiologists but also by trained gastroenterologists at outpatient clinics. In addition, the cost of IUS equipment is low when compared with other imaging techniques. IUS is an accurate technique to detect inflammatory lesions and complications in the bowel in patients with suspected or already known Crohn’s disease (CD). Recent evidence indicates that IUS is a convenient and accurate technique to assess extension and activity in the colon in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC), and can be a non-invasive alternative to endoscopy. In patients with IBD, several non-specific pathological ultrasonographic signs can be identified: bowel wall thickening, alteration of the bowel wall echo-pattern, loss of bowel stratification, increased vascularization, decreased bowel peristalsis, fibro-fatty proliferation, enlarged lymph nodes, and/or abdominal free fluid. Considering the transmural CD inflammation, CD complications such as presence of strictures, fistulae, or abscesses can be detected. In patients with UC, where inflammation is limited to mucosa, luminal inflammatory ultrasonographic changes are similar to those of CD. As the technique is related to the operator’s experience, adequate IUS training, performance in daily practice, and a generalized use of standardized parameters will help to increase its reproducibility.

Non-Ionizing Radiation Analysis in Close Proximity to Antenna Tower: A Case Study in Northeast Brazil

Abstract While the amount of telecommunications services grows rapidly in the whole world, humans get potentially more exposed to Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) from a number of different sources. Measurements of NIR levels are relevant in order to compare the results with national and international standards, aiming at the preservation of human health. Thus, it is of great interest to explore a variety of topics regarding this subject. Based on this need, this paper has a number of goals, including monitoring radiation levels in an everyday situation, an investigation of how national and international regulations organs address NIR levels and a demonstration of scientific production trends regarding this topic. The work also presents a bibliometric study about the main scientific productions and trends related to NIR measurements, with focus on the field of Telecommunications. The analysis is based on the databases of Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus, computing publications in the last 10 and 3 years, showing a trend evaluation. Among the main results from this exploratory investigation, there is an exponential growth in the number of publications about NIR, ranging from research in physics to medicine. The way research contribution in different countries is also shown, in order to support the relevance of the topic in defining new tendencies for new investigations. Furthermore, the NIR exposure limits and measurement criteria are presented both in Brazilian and in international norms, demonstrating how different national regulations can be when compared to international guidelines. Another contribution is a case study in Natal, Brazil, where NIR levels were monitored in four distinct locations over a period of 24 hours each and compared to the current regulations. The result is a quantitative analysis of the amount of radiation that some populations might be exposed to in distinct moments of the day. Measurements were carried out in the proximity of an antenna spot, since it could represent a source of high NIR levels (a worst case of human exposure). This campaign differs from older studies by including a more intense usage of microwaves frequencies due to operating 4G and pre-5G systems in Brazil. Finally, a statistical study involving the measurements is conducted, concluding the analysis of how some population groups might be affected by NIR.

Conventional Radiography and Ultrasound Imaging of Rheumatic Diseases Affecting the Pediatric Population

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis is the most frequent rheumatic disease in the pediatric population, followed by systemic lupus erythematosus, juvenile scleroderma syndromes, juvenile dermatomyositis, chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis, and juvenile vasculopathies. The imaging approach to inflammatory connective tissue diseases in childhood has not changed dramatically over the last decade, with radiographs still the leading method for bony pathology assessment, disease monitoring, and evaluation of growth disturbances. Ultrasonography is commonly used for early detection of alterations within the intra- and periarticular soft tissues, assessing their advancement and also disease monitoring. It offers several advantages in young patients including nonionizing radiation exposure, short examination time, and high resolution, allowing a detailed evaluation of the musculoskeletal system for the features of arthritis, tenosynovitis, enthesitis, bursitis, myositis, as well as pathologies of the skin, subdermis, vessels, and fasciae. In this pictorial essay we discuss radiographic and ultrasound inflammatory features of autoimmune pediatric inflammatory arthropathies: juvenile idiopathic arthritis, lupus erythematosus, juvenile scleroderma, juvenile dermatomyositis and polymyositis.

Ultrasound Role in Assessment of Bowel Diseases in Pediatrics

Background: Bowel diseases are relatively common in the pediatric age group that sometimes causes growth retardation due to malnutrition and vitamin deficiency. In addition to many bowel-related emergency situations which may cause serious complications in many cases. The main aim of this study was to determine the ability of ultrasonography to diagnose and follow up different cases of bowel diseases, either chronic or acute emergency conditions that may necessitate immediate surgical or medical intervention. Methods: sixty patients ranging between (Preterm up to 14 years) of age were examined in the Radiology department of Benha children hospital (BENCH) using linear transducer high frequency (12-15 MHz) probe. Results: Through the scheduled study period, forty (60) patients were examined by conventional ultrasound linear transducer. Seventeen (27) of them were female patients and twenty-nine (33) were males, with age ranging from preterm to fourteen years (neonate up to 2 months (19) , post neonate up to 1 years(15) and children from 1 years to 14 years (26). Validity of US in prediction of different bowel diseases in pediatric as sensitivity of US is 85, specificity is 100 and accuracy is 88.3. Conclusion: Ultrasound was proven to have a major role in different bowel diseases diagnosis in children; especially that it is considered a safe procedure that does not cause non-ionizing radiation exposure. Also, it helps rapid diagnosis without the need for prolonged special preparations.

Exposure to Non-Ionizing Radiation and Childhood Cancer: A Meta-Analysis

Background: A slight increase in the childhood cancer trend has been observed for the past few decades. Non-ionizing radiation is one of the environmental factors linked to childhood cancers. This review is conducted to assess the association between non-ionizing radiation and childhood cancer based on all original studies to date. Methods: A systematic search was conducted on the titles and abstracts pertaining to non-ionizing radiation and childhood cancers using the PubMed, Scopus, SAGE and ScienceDirect databases from inception up to November 2018. Quality of each article was appraised using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, meta-analysis was performed with Review Manager, and fixed effects were used to estimate the pooled OR of the selected studies. Results: A total of 15 articles met all the selection criteria. Twelve articles were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled risk estimates of the 12 studies, obtained via fixed effects model, showed that children exposed to 0.2 μT or more of EMF non-ionizing radiation run 1.33 times higher risks of contracting childhood cancer compared to those with less than 0.2 μT exposure (95% CI: 1.10, 1.60). The studies were statistically homogeneous (chi-squared P=0.71, I2=0%), and there was no evidence of publication bias. Conclusion: It cannot be concluded that children exposed to non-ionizing radiation have higher risks of childhood cancer compared to those who were not exposed as claimed by the previous reviews. However, concerns about non-ionizing radiation exposure and childhood cancer should not be neglected.

Non-Ionizing Radiation in Swedish Health Care-Exposure and Safety Aspects.

The main aim of the study was to identify and describe methods using non-ionizing radiation (NIR) such as electromagnetic fields (EMF) and optical radiation in Swedish health care. By examining anticipated exposure levels and by identifying possible health hazards we also aimed to recognize knowledge gaps in the field. NIR is mainly used in health care for diagnosis and therapy. Three applications were identified where acute effects cannot be ruled out: magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and electrosurgery. When using optical radiation, such as class 3 and 4 lasers for therapy or surgical procedures and ultra-violet light for therapy, acute effects such as unintentional burns, photo reactions, erythema and effects on the eyes need to be avoided. There is a need for more knowledge regarding long-term effects of MRI as well as on the combination of different NIR exposures. Based on literature and after consulting staff we conclude that the health care professionals’ knowledge about the risks and safety measures should be improved and that there is a need for clear, evidence-based information from reliable sources, and it should be obvious to the user which source to address.

Non-Ionizing Radiation Measurement around Four Different Selected Areas

Telecommunication is the most demanding services nowadays. The increasing demands toward technologies especially in cellular phones, computers, electronic gadgets and other electrical appliances lead to the increase of non-ionizing radiation (NIR) exposure. This kind of exposure may harmful to living things based on previous research findings. This study aims to measure the electric field (EF) strength around several selected areas and compared the obtained value with the international standard recommended by ICNIRP. The measurement was conducted using Spectrum Analyzer which connects to two circular patch antenna which can detect frequencies up to 3 GHz. The coordinates of the selected sites were recorded by Global Positioning System (GPS) and the measurement were conducted for 10 minutes for each point. The obtained values of each area show that each area values still under the limit recommended by ICNIRP. However, some area shows high exposure especially at denser populated area. All these data can be used as a reference for further study and as a guide for the Ministry of Health Malaysia to proposed guidelines of the usage of technology in our daily life for public concern.

Spatial Model of Non-Ionizing Radiation Exposure around Gong Badak

Spatial Model of Non-Ionizing Radiation Exposure around Gong Badak

Radio frequency nonionizing radiation exposure burdens to the population at major market centers in Ibadan metropolis, Nigeria

There has been proliferation of mobile phone base station towers in recent years due to an expansion of mobile telephone networks. This has been accompanied by an increase in the community concern about possible radiation exposure due to the radio frequency (RF) radiation emissions from antennae mounted on the base station towers. This work presents RF measurements and information on the levels at selected markets in Ibadan, Nigeria. The highest RF power density of 499.6 μW/m2 obtained at Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) 1800 band occurred at Apete market. The lowest RF power density of 0.1 μW/m2 was also obtained at Alesinloye for GSM 1800, Dugbe, and Ogunpa for GSM 900; at this point of measurement, the base transceiver station was not in the line of sight. The measured RF levels were compared with the maximum permissible limit for nonoccupational exposure with respect to the Radiocommunications (Electromagnetic Radiation – Human Exposure) Standard 1999 which specifies a maximum nonoccupational exposure limit of 2 W/m2 (equivalent to 200 μW/cm2) at relevant base station frequencies. The results showed that the RF exposure levels were several orders of magnitude below the maximum permissible limits around the environments of the major markets in the city of Ibadan.

Relationship between Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) Exposure Level and the Base Station Tower Installation around Kuala Nerus

The rapid development of wireless technology nowadays has led to the increases of erection of base station telecommunication (BST). However, the exposure transmitted from BST generated the public concern on health problem because it is said can causes high risk to the human and surroundings. Therefore, this study will focused on the influence of selected BST installed around Kuala Nerus towards the ambient NIR exposure value at surroundings. By using spectrum analyzer connected to receiving omni-directional antenna, the NIR exposure level in terms of electric field (EF) strength is measured horizontally at 50 m until 500 m around the BSTs. The comparison between the measured values and the international reference levels of ICNIRP were done. Besides, the exposure values were compared among the BSTs area by considering the other influenced factors at surroundings. The result shows that the highest exposure level was recorded at BST located in sub-urban area and has the higher number of antennas installed on the top. It can be concluded that the number of BST nearby, the number of antennas, the direction of the antenna and the presence of other sources influenced the ambient NIR exposure at that area.

Hippocampal lipidome and transcriptome profile alterations triggered by acute exposure of mice to GSM 1800 MHz mobile phone radiation: An exploratory study.

BackgroundThe widespread use of wireless devices during the last decades is raising concerns about adverse health effects of the radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF‐EMR) emitted from these devices. Recent research is focusing on unraveling the underlying mechanisms of RF‐EMR and potential cellular targets. The “omics” high‐throughput approaches are powerful tools to investigate the global effects of RF‐EMR on cellular physiology.MethodsIn this work, C57BL/6 adult male mice were whole‐body exposed (nE xp = 8) for 2 hr to GSM 1800 MHz mobile phone radiation at an average electric field intensity range of 4.3–17.5 V/m or sham‐exposed (nSE = 8), and the RF‐EMR effects on the hippocampal lipidome and transcriptome profiles were assessed 6 hr later.ResultsThe data analysis of the phospholipid fatty acid residues revealed that the levels of four fatty acids [16:0, 16:1 (6c + 7c), 18:1 9c, eicosapentaenoic acid omega‐3 (EPA, 20:5 ω3)] and the two fatty acid sums of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids (SFA and MUFA) were significantly altered (p < 0.05) in the exposed group. The observed changes indicate a membrane remodeling response of the tissue phospholipids after nonionizing radiation exposure, reducing SFA and EPA, while increasing MUFA residues. The microarray data analysis demonstrated that the expression of 178 genes changed significantly (p < 0.05) between the two groups, revealing an impact on genes involved in critical biological processes, such as cell cycle, DNA replication and repair, cell death, cell signaling, nervous system development and function, immune system response, lipid metabolism, and carcinogenesis.ConclusionsThis study provides preliminary evidence that mobile phone radiation induces hippocampal lipidome and transcriptome changes that may explain the brain proteome changes and memory deficits previously shown by our group.

Electron and Proton Irradiation Damage in β-Ga2O3 Vertical Rectifiers

Wide bandgap semiconductors materials have always been the interest of their ability that can withstand high radiation fluences for the military, nuclear-industry monitoring, satellites and other space-borne applications. Monoclinic β phase Ga2O3 is attracting great attention for power electronics and solar-blind photodetectors because of its large bandgap (~4.9 eV) and a critical electric field strength of 8 MV/cm.[1,2,3] Also, the large diameter bulk β- Ga2O3 is commercially available with a controllable n-type doping for its epitaxial layers. Given its high bond strength and expected high vacancy formation energy, β- Ga2O3 is likely to be very radiation hard based on the reduced density of atomic displacements expected for a given energy of non-ionizing radiation exposure.[4] The cosmic rays, trapped radiation in the Earth’s radiation belts, and solar particle events are three primary sources of space irradiation. The cosmic rays consist predominantly of protons; the radiation belts contain energetic protons and electrons while solar particle events are mostly lower energy protons and electrons, in which the average integral proton fluxes at 10 MeV are of order 1014 cm-2.[1] Thus, it is important to understand the effect of energetic proton irradiation on Ga2O3. For electron irradiation, vertical rectifiers fabricated on epi Ga2O3 (Si-doped, 10 μm) on bulk (001) β- Ga2O3 substrate (Sn-doped, 650 μm) with Ti/Au as the ohmic contact for the full back area and Ni/Au for Schottky contacts in the front. The rectifiers were subject to 1.5 MeV electron irradiation at fluences from 1.79 × 1015 to 1.43 × 1016 cm-2 at a fixed beam current of 10-3 A. The electron irradiation caused a reduction in carrier concentration in the epi Ga2O3, with a carrier removal rate of 4.9 cm-1. The electron-induced damage would cause the 2kT region of the forward current-voltage characteristics increase. For the highest electron fluence, the diode ideality factor increased around 8% along with two orders of magnitude increase in on-state resistance. There was a significant reduction in reverse bias current that scaled with electron fluence. The diode on/off ratio was measured when switching from +1 V to -40 V. At -10 V reverse bias voltage, the on/off ratio was severely degraded by electron irradiation, decreasing from ~107 in the reference diodes to ~2 × 103 for the 1.43 × 1016 cm-2 fluence. The reverse recovery characteristics showed little changes even at the highest fluence, with the reverse recovery time in the range 21-25 nsec for all rectifiers. This phenomenon can be explained by the short minority carrier lifetime. which controls the carrier storage time in Ga2O3 intrinsic layer.[3] Also, based on the diode on/off ratio, the primary cause of the degradation was introduced by the reduction of majority carrier concentration. Regarding proton irradiation, β- Ga2O3 vertical rectifiers were subject to 10 MeV proton irradiation at a fixed fluence of 1014 cm-2. The electrical performance of vertical rectifiers was measured before and after proton irradiation, as well as subsequent annealing up to 450°C. The carrier removal rate was determined to be 235.7 cm-1, which is comparable to the carrier removal rate for GaN-based heterostructures under the same proton energy. Point defects introduced by the proton damage create trap states that reduce the carrier concentration in the Ga2O3. Even annealing at 300°C produces a recovery of approximately half of the carriers in the Ga2O3, while annealing at 450°C almost restores the reverse breakdown voltage. The diode on/off ratio of the rectifiers switched from +1 V to -40 V. The diode on/off ratio was severely degraded by proton irradiation and this was only partially recovered by 450°C annealing. The minority carrier diffusion length decreased from ~340 nm for the reference diode to ~315 nm after the proton irradiation. R. Benton and E. V. Benton, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 184, 255 (2001).Higashiwaki, K. Sasaki, H. Murakami, Y. Kumagai, A. Koukitu, A. Kuramata, T. Masui and S. Yamakosh, Semicond. Sci. Technol., 31, 034001 (2016).Higashiwaki, K. Sasaki, A. Kuramata, T. Masui and S. Yamakoshi, Appl. Phys. Lett., 100, 013504 (2012).I. Stepanov, V.I. Nikolaev, V. E. Bougrov and A.E. Romanov, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci., 44, 63 (2016). Figure 1

Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) Exposure Map Development Using GIS for Gong Badak, Terengganu, Malaysia

Public Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) exposure should be monitored by the government since it has proven harmful for human. Even though some studies reported that low frequency spectrum is safe, the other says that long and repetitive exposure may affect health. Thus, this study is conducted to measure the ambient NIR exposure value in the selected Terengganu area, Malaysia. The values were then used to develop a spatial model of exposure to see the radiation exposure pattern. From the findings, we found that the value was higher nearby base stations which are normally erected around residential area where the telecommunication network user is high. Thus, this study is crucial to determine the level of exposure for future plan. This findings can be used by the government to control the radio-frequency transmission and active spectrum service provider in order to limit the radiation exposure for public health concern.

A History of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection

Concern about health risks from exposure to non-ionizing radiation (NIR) commenced in the 1950s after tracking radars were first introduced during the Second World War. Soon after, research on possible biological effects of microwave radiation in the former Soviet Union and the U.S. led to public and worker exposure limits being much lower in Eastern European than in Western countries, mainly because of different protection philosophies. As public concern increased, national authorities began introducing legislation to limit NIR exposures from domestic microwave ovens and workplace devices such as visual display units. The International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA) was formed in 1966 to represent national radiation protection societies. To address NIR protection issues, IRPA established a Working Group in 1974, then a Study Group in 1975, and finally the International NIR Committee (INIRC) in 1977. INIRC's publications quickly became accepted worldwide, and it was logical that it should become an independent commission. IRPA finally established the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), chartering its remit in 1992, and defining NIR as electromagnetic radiation (ultraviolet, visible, infrared), electromagnetic waves and fields, and infra- and ultrasound. ICNIRP's guidelines have been incorporated into legislation or adopted as standards in many countries. While ICNIRP has been subjected to criticism and close scrutiny by the public, media, and activists, it has continued to issue well-received, independent, science-based protection advice. This paper summarizes events leading to the formation of ICNIRP, its key activities up to 2017, ICNIRP's 25th anniversary year, and its future challenges.