Nonindustrial Forest Research Articles

Following up with Forest Inheritors: A Survival Analysis of Recently Inherited and Recently Sold Non-Industrial Forest Land in the State of Washington, USA

A growing body of literature shows that the transfer of forest land from one owner to another in the US is associated with events such as parcelization of forest land and/or the subsequent conversion of the land away from forestry land use. For individuals and families who own forest land, a key driver of ownership transfer is the eventual or actual mortality of forest owners themselves. In the State of Washington as well as the US nationally, studies on forest legacy planning reveal that most forest owners want their children or grandchildren to own their forest properties after they no longer own the forest. In contrast, the same surveys also show that a majority of US forest owners acquired their forest land by purchasing the land from a non-relative. We utilize the Washington State Forestland Database to conduct a non-parametric survival analysis of how long recently inherited forest properties remain fully owned by the new owners (i.e. there is no subsequent sale associated with the property) compared to forest land that was sold. Results show that inherited parcels have a significantly lower survival probability as measured by remaining solely within the ownership of the new owner relative to parcels that were sold within an 8-year period. This study quantifies how the mode of forest transfer influences the duration of the following ownership lifecycle and indicates that stewardship efforts should be tailored for owners who have recently inherited forest lands.

Forest Disturbances and Nonindustrial Forest Landowners: Management of Invasive Plants, Fire Hazards and Wildlife Habitats After a Hurricane

AbstractThere is limited research about the interacting impacts of hurricane damage and forest disturbances like invasive species and wildfires on nonindustrial forest land management. We administered a mail survey to 1,000 randomly selected nonindustrial private forest landowners in the Panhandle of Florida who owned forestlands in the counties most severely affected by Hurricane Michael. Results show that most landowners did little to no forest management to prepare for the hurricane. Following Hurricane Michael, 34% of respondents reported increased invasive plants whereas 82% experienced timber loss, 62% had damaged wildlife habitats, and 53% had increased vulnerability to wildfire hazards. Landowners who experienced timber damage from Hurricane Michael were more likely to reduce fire hazard, eliminate or reduce invasive plants, perform road and trail maintenance, improve wildlife habitat, reforest both salvage harvested and areas that were not salvage harvested, search for information on the internet about forest management, and pass their forestland to family.Study Implications: Forest disturbances such as hurricanes, invasive species, and wildfires are predicted to increase in severity and frequency, consequently affecting forest productivity, sustainability, and management. Despite significant impacts on forest lands, there is limited understanding of how these disturbances may affect nonindustrial private forest landowner management behaviors. This article highlights the attitudes, experiences, and perceptions of nonindustrial private forest landowners, including their awareness and overall forest management plans regarding invasive species control, wildlife habitat improvement, and reducing wildfire hazards after a hurricane. We assessed the important factors that contribute to landowners’ willingness to take action to address these interacting forest disturbances.

Active Forest Management Reduces Blacklegged Tick and Tick-Borne Pathogen Exposure Risk.

In the northeastern USA, active forest management can include timber harvests designed to meet silvicultural objectives (i.e., harvesting trees that meet certain maturity, height, age, or quality criteria). Timber harvesting is an important tool in enhancing regeneration and maintaining forest health. It also has considerable potential to influence transmission dynamics of tick-borne pathogens, which are deeply embedded in the forest ecosystem. We conducted a 2-year study to test the hypotheses that recent timber harvesting impacts blacklegged tick density and infection prevalence in managed nonindustrial forests. We found that (1) recent harvesting reduces the presence of nymphal and density of adult blacklegged ticks, (2) recently harvested stands are characterized by understory microclimate conditions that may inhibit tick survival and host-seeking behavior, (3) capture rates of small mammal species frequently parasitized by immature ticks are lower in recently harvested stands compared to control stands with no recent harvest history. In addition, a 1-year pilot study suggests that harvesting does not affect nymphal infection prevalence. Collectively, our results demonstrate that forest structure and understory conditions may impact ticks and the pathogens they transmit via a range of mechanistic pathways, and moreover, active forest management may offer sustainable tools to inhibit entomological risk of exposure to tick-borne pathogens in the landscape.

Economics of integrated harvests with biomass for energy in non-industrial forests in the northeastern US forest

Economic drivers explaining the harvest of biomass for energy use in northeastern forests in the United States are not well understood. However, knowledge of these drivers is essential for bioenergy policy development, biomass supply estimates, and assessments of harvesting impacts on forest ecosystems and carbon stocks. Using empirical data from 35 integrated harvest sites in northeastern US non-industrial forests, we analyzed the economics of mixed wood product logging operations that included biomass for energetic use from both landowner and logging contractor perspectives. Results were highly variable but indicate that biomass harvest removal intensities were not explained by primary forest management objectives, harvest area, or harvested wood product quantity. Rather than harvest area or choice of machinery, we identified biomass harvest intensity as a main driver of profits for a harvest operation, as measured in hourly and total net income to the logging contractor. While biomass stumpage payments to the landowner were marginal, tree bole biomass constituted more than half (54%) of the extracted volume by weight, far outweighing biomass derived from tops and limbs only. Biomass harvests, therefore, might encourage logging contractors to intensify harvest removals rather than increase harvest area or choose a specific harvest type or method. Such intensification could have beneficial or detrimental impacts on a stand and needs to be addressed through further studies of potential consequences for biodiversity and various ecosystem services.

Forest Plantations’ Externalities: An Application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process to Non-Industrial Forest Owners in Central Chile

The forestry sector in Chile has an important role in the domestic economy, being the second leading export sector after the mining industry. Investments in forest plantations have grown in the last 40 years thanks to implementation of the Decree Law 701. Planted forests currently account for 17.4% of the total national forest cover. The objective of the study is to analyse non-industrial forest owners’ perceptions of positive and negative externalities of forest plantations in four less developed municipalities of the Maule Region. We implemented a literature review, the estimation of an Expert’s Response Indicator (ERI), and the implementation of an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) methodology for the analysis. The results indicate that non-industrial forest owners in the four municipalities perceive the importance of each externality in a different way according to their territorial specificities. However, considering the whole study area, “CO2 sequestration”, “improvement of livelihood”, and “more importance of small and medium forest owners” were considered the most important positive externalities, while the most relevant negative externalities were “water shortage”, “power asymmetry”, and “land loss”. The study encourages further research with a similar detailed analysis on stakeholders’ perceptions of plantation projects, both to revise investment features and inform local stakeholders on their real impacts.

An overview of maritime pine private non-industrial forest in the centre of Portugal: A 19-year case study

Abstract Portuguese national policies for forests were developed considering related themes such as climate change, forest health, fire and the protective functions of forests. In Portugal, maritime pine forest is mainly private non-industrial and its area is in decline. Therefore, the aim of this study was two-fold: first, to assess maritime pine forest characteristics over a 19-year period; second, to analyse forest cover change over that period. In the end, the implementation of state policies was explored. A study area highly forested by continuous areas of naturally regenerated maritime pine in the centre of Portugal was used. To assess maritime pine forest characteristics, two sets of inventory data collected in previous studies (1991-1996 and 2007-2010) were used. To analyse forest cover change, the official land cover maps for 1990 and 2007 were used. This study findings highlighted that study area’s trends over the past years were the following: first, the decrease of maritime pine forest areas and its management decline (stands less stable, under-stocked, with large amounts of small-diameter poles and enlarged tree size variability); second, the increase of scrubland areas; third, the increase of eucalyptus afforestation with no regard for protection areas; and fourth, the absence of native oaks or introduction of other broadleaves as recommended by the state policies. Therefore, it is argued that there is a need for effective field monitoring actions with regard to the implementation of state policies. Additionally, selective incentives are key to mobilise private non-industrial forest to achieve the goals of state forest policies.

Advancing the cause? Contributions of criteria and indicators to sustainable forest management in Canada

The aim of the paper is to take stock, based on my personal scholarly and practical experiences, of the progress made in Canada with criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management (C&I-SFM). Some developmental history is reviewed, and applications at national and local levels are summarized. In my opinion, Canada's work in developing and applying C&I-SFM has been beneficial, particularly in focussing forest-sector dialogues, in sensitizing people to the wide range of forest values, and in retrospective determinations of progress in SFM. Improvements over the next decade are needed in several areas: (a) improving data-collection programs; (b) linking C&I-SFM more directly into forest policy development; (c) shifting from retrospective to prospective sustainability analysis; and (d) applying C&I-SFM to non-industrial forests such as protected areas and urban forests. The C&I-SFM concept is sound. We have yet to tap its full potential in the pursuit of forest and forest-sector sustainability.

Parcelization: Forest Change Agent in Northern Wisconsin

Abstract Parcelization-induced forest fragmentation is eating away at private, nonindustrial forests. Parcel sizes are declining and the number of landowners is increasing. These conditions make it challenging for resource managers to maintain economical timber harvesting on smaller privately held forested parcels. Shrinking parcel sizes also aggravate landscape and habitat fragmentation. In this article, we analyze parcelization and its link to private land-use change. Reconstruction of historic tax parcels and land use in three rural towns in Bayfield County, Wisconsin, allowed us to examine the effects of parcelization over a 53-year period. Our results indicate that parcelization is a significant factor in landscape change in northern Wisconsin. This research provides empirical evidence of the necessity to manage how private land is subdivided and used in amenity and natural resource rich areas.

Small-Diameter Timber Utilization in Wisconsin: A Case Study of Four Counties

Abstract The state of Wisconsin has numerous forest ownership types. These include national, state, and county forests, as well as privately owned industrial and nonindustrial forests. In addition to sawlog markets, portions of the state also have substantial pulpwood markets associated withpaper and panel mills. Combined, these attributes make Wisconsin a good location for studies of how different markets and ownerships influence small-diameter timber utilization in the Midwest. In the fall of 2003 and the spring of 2004, recent timber sales were examined in four selected countiesin Wisconsin. Data on harvest contracts, cut types, silvicultural practices, forester involvement, residual stand characteristics, and fiber utilization were gathered. These data were examined based on ownership types, proximity to pulpwood markets, and forest cover in the counties. Findingssuggested that each of these factors influenced harvest activities. Examining these factors will increase our understanding of the role small-diameter timber plays in forest management and expose opportunities resulting from its utilization. North. J. Appl. For. 23(4):250 –256.

Wildland–urban interface: Challenges and opportunities

The wildland–urban interface (WUI), commonlydescribed as the area where urban areas meet andinteract with rural lands (Vince et al., 2005), includesthe edges of large cities and small communities, areaswhere homes and other structures are intermixed withforests and other land uses, and islands of undevel-oped lands within urban areas (Alavalapati, 2005;Monroe et al., 2003; SAF, 2004). The interface isparticularly characterized by areas of urban sprawlwhere development pressures are pressed againstpublic and private wildlands. Continuous transitionof land-use, primarily from agriculture and forest usesto urban land uses, in the interface raises a myriad ofsocioeconomic and environmental concerns. A deeperunderstanding of these concerns is essential toformulate effective policy solutions.While a household’s dream of home ownership andthe value placed on private property rights favor urbandevelopment (Garkovich, 2000), the moving interfaceassociated with urbanization poses a series of chal-lenges to both rural and urban communities. Theseinclude ecosystems fragmentation, increased exposureto invasive species, water and air pollution, wildfires,and loss of habitat for wildlife. These changes affectresidents of rural and urban areas, natural resourcemanagers, and business and environmental organiza-tions. For example, management of forests for eco-logical goods and services such as forest products andcleanwaterisaffectedbypeopleoccupyingtheforests.Manytypesoflandownershipsintheinterfacebringindnew neighborsT with a different set of values, life-styles,andlandethicsintotheinterface;andasaresult,conflicts and tensions arise between these dnewT anddexistingT communities and cultures. The changesimparted as the WUI develops are not only significantbutareveryrapid,muchfasterthananyotherprocessesthat impacted land use changes in recent history. Forexample, Alig et al. (2000) noted that as much as 14million acres of non-industrial forests were lost tourban use between 1952 and 1997. Multiple jurisdic-tions and scales within a region, that are typical of aWUI, can further complicate efforts to manage andconserve natural resources. Thus, the rapid urbangrowth in wildland has significant and widespreadsocial, cultural, economic, and environmental implica-tions. Addressing the problems of the WUI to sustainecologically viable and socio-economically feasiblelandscapesisacomplextaskforwhichneithereasynorperfect solutions exist (Alavalapati, 2005).Planning and managing in a WUI thus invariablyinvolvesseveraldisciplinesthatencompassthenatural,socio-economic, and cultural dimensions of the issues,

Program Participation Behavior of Nonindustrial Forest Landowners: A Probit Analysis

AbstractThis study provides an analysis of nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners' participation in forestry assistance programs. A probit model was used for data collected from a random sample of 329 Indiana landowners. The analysis revealed that total land owned, commercial reasons for ownership, government sources of information, and membership in forestry organizations influenced NIPF landowners' program participation. Age, fear of loss of property rights, and duration since the first wooded tract was acquired also influenced program participation. Location of landowners' residence on their wooded land and landowners' knowledge of and willingness to participate in a conservation easement influenced the participation in cost-share programs.

Planting trees for carbon credits: a discussion of context, issues, feasibility, and environmental benefits

Increasing concentrations of certain atmospheric gases, particularly CO2, may be intensifying Earth's naturally occurring greenhouse effect. Anthropogenic emissions of CO2are mostly associated with fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation, both of which are intimately associated with diverse economically important activities. This circumstance will make it difficult for society to rapidly achieve large reductions in the emissions of CO2. The extensive planting of trees can contribute to offsetting a portion of the anthropogenic emissions of CO2and other radiatively active gases (RAGs). Growing plants fix atmospheric CO2into organic carbon of their accumulating biomass, and ecological budgets suggest that substantial carbon credits can be achieved by planting large numbers of trees, in both urban and rural environments. Moreover, many additional noncarbon environmental benefits are achieved by planting trees over extensive areas. A tree-planting strategy could not, however, be practically used to offset more than a relatively small portion of the RAGs emitted through human activities. This limitation is mostly due to the immense areas of land that would have to be afforested to achieve more substantial offsets. Ultimately, effectively dealing with an anthropogenic enhancement of Earth's greenhouse effect will require a comprehensive integrated strategy, the major component of which will be reduced emissions. However, carbon offsets associated with the planting of trees will also be an important element of that integrated strategy. This review discusses issues involved in the planting of trees to offset emissions of CO2and other RAGs. Forest-carbon offsets are discussed in the contexts of the greenhouse effect and climate change, options for reducing emissions of CO2, and the feasibility and environmental benefits of achieving CO2offsets by extensively planting trees. Attention is paid to both carbon and noncarbon benefits, in the contexts of industrial and nonindustrial forests, both urban and rural.Key words: forest-carbon offsets, carbon credits, afforestation, rural forest, urban forest.

Land Attributes and Land Allocation: Nonindustrial Forest Use in the Pacific Northwest

Abstract A land allocation model quantifies the influence of timber benefits, agricultural benefits, population, and land attributes on nonindustrial forestland allocation in the Pacific Northwest. The proportion of land in forest use only gradually changes and may be unresponsive to markets for land products or market-based policy instruments such as reforestation cost subsidies. Consequently, economic responses to policies may take place within forest rotations, which could change the mix of timber and nontimber benefits from private forests in favor of timber. If joint production of timber and nontimber benefits on private lands is to be considered a policy goal, new policy instruments may be needed. For. Sci. 40(3):558-575.

Production Economics of Private Forestry: A Comparison of Industrial and Nonindustrial Forest Owners

AbstractThis paper compares the production behavior of industrial and nonindustrial private forestland owners in the southeastern U.S. using a restricted profit function. Profits are modeled as a function of two outputs, sawtimber and pulpwood, one variable input, regeneration effort, and two quasi‐fixed inputs, land and growing stock. Although an identical profit function is rejected, the results indicate behavior consistent with profit‐maximizing motives under both ownerships. The two ownerships have similar responses to input and output price changes, both in the short‐run and in the long‐run. However, nonindustrial owners appear to place a higher value on their standing timber and forestland than do industrial owners. The difference in estimated shadow values indicates that significant nonmarket benefits are being captured by nonindustrial owners and the benefits are reflected in their production behavior.

Optimal harvest of industrial forests

Optimal harvest of forests in a partly integrated forest-industry enterprise is studied. The present value of expected total profits of the enterprise is maximized. The timber supply curve of the industrial forest is derived. It is found that, in the environment of uncertainty in future timber prices and timber supply from non-industrial private forests, the forest industry will harvest more than non-industrial private forest owners when the observed timber price is low. The industry's timber supply responds to changes of timber price in different ways at different price levels: when timber price is below a certain level, timber harvest is constant and not affected by timber price; when timber price increases from this level, timber harvest first decreases and later increases with timber price. A numerical example is used to illustrate the analytically-derived and general results. It is found that the optimal reservation prices of industrial forests are higher than those of non-industrial forests. However, the probability of harvesting an industrial forest stand is higher than that of harvesting a non-industrial private forest stand because the industrial forest stand could be harvested even when the observed timber price is lower than its optimal reservation price.

Factors influencing involvement of a forester in managing non-industrial forests

Although improved forest management can increase both timber and non-timber benefits, many landowners do not seek forestry assistance. An empirical model is used to analyse relationships between selected forest and owner characteristics and the propensity to seek professional forestry advice. Strong positive correlations were found between an owner's education level, parcel size and in-state residence, and the propensity to seek professional forestry assistance.

The Effect of Nontimber Taxes on the Harvest Timing—The Case of Private Nonindustrial Forest Owners: A Note

Abstract The paper focuses on how lump sum, exogenous labor income and capital income taxes influence timber supply in a two-period model, when future timber price is uncertain. First, the usual comparative static results are derived. Second, the relative effects of taxes on the timber supply are studied, on the assumption that government keeps the tax revenue constant. It will be established that the entire taxation system, i.e., even nontimber taxes, affect timber supply. Moreover, the supply effects of government tax policy depend crucially on capital market conditions. Under perfect capital markets a switch from lump sum tax towards labor income tax has no effect on supply, and on the other hand, a tax switch toward capital income tax (increased interest payment deductability) decreases timber supply. Under credit rationing the sign of the former switch depends on the relative magnitudes of labor income during the first and second period, and the latter increases timber supply. For. Sci. 37(1):356-363.

Forest taxation and the timing of private nonindustrial forest harvests under interest rate uncertainty

The effects of forest taxation (lump sum, unit, and yield taxes) on timber supply are analyzed in a two-period model with an uncertain real interest rate under perfect or credit-rationed capital market conditions. The results differ considerably from the implications in price uncertainty models. First, an uncertain interest rate introduces asymmetry between lenders and borrowers, unknown in those models. Lenders tend to decrease and borrowers to increase forest cutting as a response to interest rate uncertainty. Second, the qualitative effects of timber taxes on supply also differ between the models. The reason for this lies in the change of the source of uncertainty. Interest rate uncertainty implies that the wealth effects of lump sum taxes are not zero even under constant absolute risk aversion, as they are zero under price uncertainty. Third, these differences imply differences in the relative effectiveness of taxes.

La Mise en Marché du Bois en Forêt Privée : Une Question d'Attitude?

The marketing of roundwood from private non-industrial forests is one of the main activity for the private woodlot owners. This article identifies factors influencing their negotiating power. The analysis of the Finnish roundwood marketing system focuses on the strategy taken by the private owners to increase their economics and social conditions. The success of the strategy lies in the flexibility of the selling process, the quality of information, the responsibilities of private owners' organisations and in the involvement of private owners in the forest industry. Securing a fair wood price and guaranteed wood sales create appropriate conditions for intensive forest management on small private woodlots. Key words: Roundwood marketing, attitude, negotiating power, selling processes, organisations' responsibilities, Co-op Metsäliitto, woodlot owners implication

Federal-State Death Tax Implications for Private Nonindustrial Forest Landowners in the Northeast

Abstract Tax planning is an important component of forest management. Management planning generally focuses on income and property taxes. Potential death taxes, however, are often overlooked, which can cause serious problems with the orderly transfer of forested property at death. This article examines key provisions of the federal death tax law, together with the death tax statutes of 13 northeastern states. A modal depicts the combined death tax levy—federal plus state—in these states for a specific planning strategy at the first spouse's death. A second model examines the total tax levy for three different strategies through the second spouse's death based on the property distribution at the first death. North. J. Appl. For. 5:135-141, June 1988.