Non-indigenous Communities Research Articles

Being Native American in Business: Identity and Leadership in Modern American Indian Enterprises

Tribally-owned American Indian enterprises provide a unique cross-cultural setting for emerging Native American business leaders. This paper examines the manner in which American Indian leaders negotiate the boundaries between their indigenous organizations and the non-indigenous communities in which they do business. Through a series of qualitative interviews, we find that American Indian business leaders fall back on a strong sense of

Primary health-care responses to methamphetamine use in Australian Indigenous communities.

Crystal methamphetamine (commonly known as 'ice') use is currently a deeply concerning problem for some Australian Indigenous peoples and can cause serious harms to individual, families and communities. This paper is intended to support best practice responses by primary health-care staff working with Australian Indigenous people who use methamphetamine. It draws on a systematic search of relevant databases to identify literature from January 1999 to February 2014, providing an overview of prevalence, treatment, education and harm reduction, and community responses. The prevalence of methamphetamine use is higher in Indigenous than non-Indigenous communities, particularly in urban and regional settings. No evidence was identified that specifically related to effective treatment and treatment outcomes for Indigenous Australians experiencing methamphetamine dependence or problematic use. While studies involving methamphetamine users in the mainstream population suggest that psychological and residential treatments show short-term promise, longer-term outcomes are less clear. Community-driven interventions involving Indigenous populations in Australia and internationally appear to have a high level of community acceptability; however, outcomes in terms of methamphetamine use are rarely evaluated. Improved national data on prevalence of methamphetamine use among Indigenous people and levels of treatment access would support service planning. We argue for the importance of a strength-based approach to addressing methamphetamine use, to counteract the stigma and despair that frequently accompanies it.

How Are Indigenous and Local Communities' Rights Over Their Traditional Knowledge and Genetic Resources Protected in Current Free Trade Negotiations? Highlighting the Draft Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TTPA)

The article analyzes the relevant traditional knowledge provisions of two chapters of the TTPA: on intellectual property rights and on the environment. There is no agreement where these provisions shall be included. There is also wide disagreement over the content of the specific provisions. Some states want to have a widest possible scope of the public domain, and no provisions for sanctioning the taking of genetic resources and associated traditional intellectual property without the consent of indigenous peoples and local communities. The article investigates whether and in which form indigenous peoples are given stronger rights over their intellectual property in international legal instruments, compared to non-indigenous traditional communities. It finds that in many legal instruments, there is no difference. The strongest provisions on traditional knowledge are, however, found in an instrument that applies only to indigenous peoples, the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). The article also investigates whether the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities are stronger in the realm of traditional knowledge than in the realm of genetic resources. It finds that this is generally the case. The provisions are analyzed from the perspective of collective decision-making, defensive protection and positive protection.

Reports from the Field: Eneq's Ke:s - Kake:ketikuaq Omae:qnomene:wak ("The Menominee Have Spoken"): Mentorship and Collaboration in an Indigenous Community

Research involving Indigenous peoples is political, historically situated, contextually positioned, and involves people with multiple and sometimes conflicting interests. This Report from the Field toils the story of an intersection of two worlds, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, and has been written for Indigenous, non-Indigenous and academic communities. In this article, a non-Indigenous researcher revisits how she informed and confirmed ethical responsibilities and protocols of non-Indigenous researchers completing research in Indigenous communities. Drawing on Critical Indigenous Research Methodologies, this account frames a journey of a non-Indigenous researcher and an Indigenous mentor as they enacted notions of relationality, respect, responsibility, reciprocity and accountability in an Indigenous community to gain trust, rapport and access to the tribal community. The article further examines how important it is for non-Indigenous researchers to respect the selfdetermination and sovereignty of Indigenous communities.

From Sovereignty in Australia to Australian Sovereignty

The article argues that sovereignty in Australia is as yet incomplete, but that full sovereignty could be achieved through engagement with the indigenous Aboriginal ‘first nations’. First, the inter-constitution of the concepts of sovereignty and politics is outlined. Then the unfinished character of sovereignty since white settlement is examined, indicating the default nature of the sovereignty settlement. The challenge arising from complex indigenous claims to sovereignty is then explored through two elements of a differend, or power differential, which has excluded indigenous peoples from meaningful recognition as political actors. The meaning of sovereignty in the broad field of indigenous claims is then analysed. Finally, a proposal for constitutional amendment is outlined, building both upon Aboriginal self-understandings as belonging to specific nations and groups and upon the logic of the history of white settlement. Constitutional revision which takes account of these histories provides an opportunity to extend the scope of the parties who are federated. Such a process could stimulate debate that generates a meaningful Australian sovereignty settlement identity for both indigenous and non-indigenous communities.

Ka Tzij: The Maya diasporic voices from Contacto Ancestral

This article explores the ways in which the Los Angeles-based Maya radio show Contacto Ancestral challenges the processes of Americanization carried by local and national state entities and reinforced through mainstream Spanish and English-language media. It specifically addresses how the program carves an audible space in the city’s airwaves, and on the World Wide Web, to reaffirm a Maya identity that also vindicates indigenous cultural, political and economic rights. In doing so, Contacto Ancestral creates a space from which Mayas can maintain an audible local and hemispheric memory, which is simultaneously attuned to contemporary Pan-Indigenous, immigrant and human rights movements. Through the constructions of an audible “community archive,” to use cultural studies scholar Ann Cvetkovich’s term, Contacto Ancestral preserves the voices and everyday histories of specifically Maya, but also indigenous and non-indigenous diasporic communities in the United States. Thus, the staff members, and listeners, of Contacto Ancestral provide a model for the affirmation of diverse diasporic and transnational identities.

Mascarenhas, Michael, Where the Waters Divide: Neoliberalism, White Privilege, and Environmental Racism in Canada.

Mascarenhas, Michael, Where the Waters Divide: Neoliberalism, White Privilege, and Environmental Racism in Canada. Toronto: Lexington Books, 2012, 161 pp., $60.00 (978-0-7391-6827-1) In Where the Waters Divide, Michael Mascarenhas has provided a detailed set of case studies which explore the racial structure of water governance in Ontario. The great strength of this book is that it systematically names and explores how neoliberalism is a racial formation highlighting not simply how water policy disadvantages First Nations communities but also how concomitant water practices privilege the environmental and social conditions that white Canadians take for granted. Mascaren draws on the literatures regarding environmental justice, social reproduction, and critiques of neoliberal reform, and incorporates ethnographic interviews with twenty-seven participants, of whom work in or with six First Nations communities in southern Ontario. The author highlights the history of dispossession, water diversion, and dam projects that have characterized Canadian-First Nations relationships, while demonstrating how contemporary technologies of administration, expertise, and entrepreneurialism are reinscribing deeply hierarchical racial inequalities. Through four case studies (from the dispossession of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation on the St. Lawrence River to the contemporary practices of technoscientific knowledge that remove issues of power and equity from broader environmental concerns) Mascarenhas shows how neoliberal water policy enacts a form of racism without racists insofar as it ensures that poor, minoritized, and especially Indigenous communities carry the burden of being unable to access clean and safe water. Mascarenhas' research was inspired, in part, by a little reported but key finding from the Walkerton reports which observed that First Nations reserves had some of the poorest quality drinking water in the province. The question driving the book is how the stunning inequality between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities in their access to clean water has been normalized, or to use a phrase from W.E.B. Dubois, has come to be viewed with a kind of peculiar indifference (Dubois 1899:157 quoted on p. 145). I highlight two examples to illustrate the major themes and contributions of the book. Statistics from the Minister of Supply and Services Canada confirm, most of the water treatment plans on First Nations reserves in Ontario are in need of repair, upgrading or replacement (p. 21). While the regulatory regime governing water quality on reserves is structured through multiple and overlapping departments, the primary branch responsible for drinking water services is Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC). Through analysis of the Walkerton reports and interviews with First Nations water technicians Mascarenhas details INAC's approach to this widely acknowledged, yet stubbornly persistent problem. His analysis suggests that INAC fails to consult with the very people responsible for water management on reserves, and often takes years to approve applications to repair failing infrastructure. As federal and provincial departments have been cut back, audit type practices have become a common strategy for monitoring water quality in municipal and reserve contexts. However, many of the experienced First Nations water operators believe that this shift from service provider to service supervisor modes of governance has less to do with the improvement of water quality and more to do government's efforts to distance itself from what they saw as highly political and racial decisions that border on dereliction of government responsibility (p. …

The ‘Operationalized Predicaments of Suicide’ (OPS) applied to Northern Territory coroners’ reports

ObjectiveTo apply the “Operationalized Predicaments of Suicide” (OPS) to coroners’ reports with a view to classifying the drivers/triggers of suicide in the Northern Territory (Australia) for the years July 2000–December 2010, with attention to the total population, and to a comparison of suicide triggers for the Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities. MethodsA total of 411 reports (Indigenous, 198; non-Indigenous, 213) were obtained from the National Coroners Information System (NCIS). A research officer thematically analysed each case report and classified each according to the four categories of the OPS. Calculations were performed for the entire sample and comparisons were made between Indigenous and non-Indigenous groups. ResultsFor the total sample, 20% of suicides were triggered by mental illness, and 58% were triggered by social/environmental events. In 9% there were both mental illness and social/environmental factors, and in 14% no triggers could be identified. There were group differences; the non-Indigenous group was over represented in the mental illness category and the Indigenous group was over represented in the social/environmental category (χ2 (3)=41.5, p=0.000). ConclusionsSocial/environmental stressors are important triggers of suicide in the Northern Territory. Social/environmental stressors were more often the suicide trigger in Indigenous community suicide compared to non-Indigenous community suicide.

Water and Indigenous Peoples: Canada’s Paradox

The condition of water safety and quality on reserve has been a growing concern in Canada. Despite a substantial amount of funding allocated toward improving water infrastructure on reserve, an alarming proportion of communities face boil and drinking water advisories. To understand why this paradox and problem persists, this article will work through the issues and nuances that have created unsafe drinking water on reserve, proposed remedies, and policy implications. To do so, the role of the Government of Canada is reviewed first because reserve land is under federal jurisdiction. Following this, the article will discuss the standpoints of the Assembly of First Nations and other Indigenous groups on the water crisis, and will draw upon focus groups within First Nations that we conducted. To contextualize the water issue on reserve in Canada, a comparison with the United States is then drawn. One of the main themes of this paper with regard to the issue of safe drinking water on reserve is how the legacy of colonization has limited community capacity. This theme is then discussed in depth by comparing Indigenous to non-Indigenous communities, looking to the social determinants of water quality, and possibilities and limitations of building sustainable development allowing for safe drinking water on reserve. To understand what processes consistently intervene in the way of sustainability of safe water in Indigenous communities, regulatory frameworks are examined, funding mechanisms are reviewed, and Aboriginal governance is discussed along with the direction that policy should take.

Legal pluralism and customary water resources management in Guatemala

The existing legal framework for water resources management in Guatemala is obsolete, inconsistent and not enforced. To bridge the gap, many indigenous and non-indigenous communities throughout the country successfully regulate water use through oral or written bylaws. This paper classifies the rules and practices adopted by local communities in order to define their scope and anticipate options to recognize customary water rights in future statutory legislation, as well as under the current legal regime, consistently with the public interest.

Health Service Provision in a Huichol Community in Mexico: an issue of Intercultural Communication

In Mexico, there is a high incidence of health-related problems among indigenous ethnic groups that are otherwise prevented and have a low impact in non-indigenous rural communities. The Mexican Ministry of Health acknowledges that this problem may be in part due to the fact that the vision of the indigenous patient regarding health issues has been omitted from official programmes. In this paper we show that although understanding cultural aspects is crucial in the development of a culturally-sensitive view of health care service provision, it is also of paramount importance to observe aspects concerning intercultural communication issues, such as differences in expectations regarding interaction patterns. The case of the Huichols, an indigenous ethnic group in Mexico, is presented.

Ethnobotanical Knowledge of Sarrapia (Dipteryx odorata [AUBL.] WILLD.) Among Three Non-Indigenous Communities of the Lower Caura River Basin, Venezuela

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) offers a broad range of information that conservationists, development practitioners, non-governmental organizations, and researchers value greatly. However, LEK has an intrinsic value to its holders; it represents their capacity to adapt and survive in remote areas, while anchoring their cultural continuity within a specific ecological region. The authors set out to describe in this essay the ethnobotanical knowledge of sarrapia (Dipteryx odorata [Aubl.] Willd.) or tonka bean among the inhabitants of three non-indigenous communities of the Lower Caura River Basin, southern Venezuela. The results of this study suggest that there is a strong association between the livelihood of the Caura's residents and the consecutive annual cycle of this species. This association is demonstrated by how the locals: 1. make interconnections between the biological cycle of sarrapia and climatic and ecological variables; 2. discriminate between wild and cultivated sarrapia tree stands; 3. provide accurate estimates on the total production of sarrapia beans per tree stand every year; 4. implement the appropriate skills throughout the delicate process of extracting and treating the beans; and 5. regulate the access and usufruct rights to the wild and cultivated sarrapia trees.

Making sense of dementia: understanding amongst indigenous Australians

Dementia is a growing health and social concern for all Australians. Whilst the prevalence of dementia amongst Australia's indigenous people is unclear, there is some evidence that dementia rates are five times that of the general Australian population. To date no studies have examined dementia knowledge levels in indigenous communities. This paper aims to explore indigenous Australians' understanding, knowledge and misconceptions of dementia. Hundered and seventy-four indigenous adults participated in a cross-sectional survey using a modified version of the Alzheimer's Disease Knowledge Test (ADK). The survey included demographic information, two open-ended questions and 20 multiple choice questions. Each ADK item was examined to identify responses that revealed commonly held correct beliefs, knowledge gaps and misconceptions. The overall level of understanding of dementia was poor. Younger participants were significantly more likely to have no knowledge of Alzheimer's Disease, whereas the other age groups were most likely to have at least some knowledge. It was also revealed that there are common misconceptions about Alzheimer's Disease held by both indigenous and non-indigenous communities. Culturally appropriate awareness campaigns and targeted educational interventions need to be implemented to improve the general level of understanding of dementia in indigenous communities.

‘The foundation of our community’: cultural restoration, reclaiming children and youth in an indigenous community

Ongoing impacts of colonialism and displacement, cultural erasure and economic marginalization have contributed to the reality of indigenous youth in Canada being pushed into activities that place them at high risk for contact with the criminal justice system (Samuelson and Monture-Angus 2002). This is through actual engagement in criminal activities, including involvement with gangs, drug abuse and interpersonal violence. It also relates to the extensive policing of indigenous communities and the fact that, in Canada, indigenous youths are more likely than non-indigenous youths to be incarcerated and for longer periods for their offences (Roberts and Melchers 2003; O'Grady 2007). The chances that a 16-year-old treaty-status indigenous boy will wind up in prison at least once by age 25 is 70%, while likelihood of the same for a non-native youth is 8% (Collis 2005, Samuelson and Monture-Angus 2002). Even more, indigenous youth are being arrested earlier than non-indigenous youth (Smandych et al. 1995; O'Grady 2007). In addition, the recidivism rates among indigenous groups are higher than among non-indigenous communities (Proulx 2000). The combined impact of suicide, early deaths and imprisonment mean that many indigenous, especially Northern, communities are left to exist virtually childless. The pain and havoc such experiences leave in their wake cannot even begin to be quantified.

The response of herpetofauna to urbanization: Inferring patterns of persistence from wildlife databases

AbstractUrbanization involves the conversion of natural habitats into human‐modified ecosystems and is known to reduce the diversity and abundance of indigenous plant and animal communities. Urbanization may lead to the extinction of indigenous species or facilitate the establishment of non‐indigenous communities in cities and towns. We analysed sighting records held in wildlife databases to infer the probability of persistence of reptiles and amphibians (‘herpetofauna’) within Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Throughout greater Melbourne, 81% (13) of the 16 frog species recorded had ≥95% probability of being extant in 2006, compared with 56% (22) of the 39 species of reptiles recorded. The number of frog species that had ≥95% probability of being extant in inner local government areas (LGAs) within 10 km of the centre of Melbourne was higher (86%) than in the outer LGAs (69%). Conversely, only 46% of reptile species had ≥95% probability of being extant in inner and outer LGAs. The proportion of reptile species with <50% probability of being extant in inner LGAs was higher than for frog species (25% and 7%, respectively), suggesting that reptiles have been negatively affected by urbanization to a much greater extent than frogs. Based on the probability of species being extant, frogs and reptiles exhibited variations in their response to urbanization between species that persisted (urban‐adapters) and species that did not (urban‐sensitive or urban‐avoiders). These differences in response were likely related to individual species' life‐history and their requirements for habitat, space and dispersal. To conserve herpetofauna in urban areas we need to maintain structural complexity in remnant habitat patches, and implement strategic policies and management actions that protect habitat remnants and habitat corridors.

Semisubmersible oil platforms: understudied and potentially major vectors of biofouling-mediated invasions

Biofouling has long been recognised as a major pathway for the introduction of non-indigenous species. This study records the decapods and stomatopod crustaceans fouling a semisubmersible oil platform dry docked for hull cleaning in Jurong Port, Singapore. Of the 25 species of decapods identified, 13 were non-indigenous and represent new records to Singapore waters. Of these, the crabs Glabropilumnus seminudus and Carupa tenuipes are known to be invasive in other parts of the world. The stomatopod, Gonodactylaceus randalli, is the first mantis shrimp recorded in a biofouling community. The richness and diversity of this fouling community, consisting of many vagile species, highlights the difference between platforms and ships. With the expansion of maritime oil and gas exploration, the threat posed by an expanded fleet of semisubmersible oil platforms translocating non-indigenous fouling communities across biogeographical boundaries is very serious. Scientists, policy-makers, and stakeholders should turn their attention to this growing problem.

Pelvic floor disorders among indigenous women living in Xingu Indian Park, Brazil

Current assessment for pelvic floor disorders (PFDs) allows comparison between different communities. A total of 377 indigenous women living in Xingu Indian Park were evaluated. The pelvic organ prolapse quantification (POP-Q) was the system used to quantification the staging of pelvic support. The pelvic floor muscle strength was assessed by a perineometer. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine risk factors that were associated with prolapse. Only 5.8% of women reported urinary incontinence. The overall distribution of POP-Q stage system was the following: 15.6% stage 0, 19.4% stage I, 63.9% stage II and 0.8% stage III. Parity and age were the risk factors for pelvic organ prolapse (p < 0.0001). Urinary incontinence was uncommon in Xingu indigenous women. Like non-indigenous communities, age and parity were the most important risk factors to the genital prolapse.

Indigenous Sentencing Courts and Partner Violence: What Happens to Gender Power Imbalances During the Sentence Hearing?

This paper goes some way in mapping and assessing the processes of Indigenous sentencing courts when dealing with family violence offences. In particular this research focuses on intimate partner violence (rather than other forms of family violence) since it is the most frequent form of family violence in Indigenous communities. Rates of intimate partner violence and intimate homicide in Indigenous communities are widely documented as being much higher than that in non-Indigenous communities, despite the fact that measuring these rates is not straightforward. The use of the courts for sentencing family violence offenders has been supported and encouraged by many of the key players and Elders involved with the courts. However, others, including key players and Elders involved with the Koori Courts in Victoria, consider the dynamics surrounding the offence of family violence to be too complex for consideration by the Elders which sit on the Indigenous sentencing courts. The presence of gendered power imbalances in a hearing concerning domestic and family violence is often identified as being a particularly problematic aspect of alternative justice processes. Victims who are present at hearings held in alternative justice forums often lack proper support to counter the risks of further abuse and control continuing during such hearings. The main focus of this paper is the extent to which gendered power imbalances are present in sentencing hearings conducted in Indigenous sentencing courts and how such power imbalances are addressed by the presence of Elders. The research specifically focuses on the courts in New South Wales and Queensland, and on the views of Magistrates, Elders, court workers and domestic violence support workers associated with those courts. Feminist critical race theories that have explored the complexities involved in responding to family violence in Indigenous communities, are used as the theoretical framework from which to consider whether the processes of the Indigenous sentencing courts are suitable for dealing with offenders and victims of intimate partner violence. In particular, emphasis will be placed on studies that have focused on critiquing the different types of court processes that are used for resolving matters involving family violence. The paper firstly describes the different processes of the Indigenous sentencing courts in Queensland and New South Wales. Next, it outlines what feminist and critical race scholars have said about using alternative justice forums to deal with family violence offences and whether these alternative justice forums are able to rectify any gender power imbalances which exist during the hearing itself. Finally, findings from an analysis of data collected from 39 interviews and eight observations of intimate partner violence sentencing hearings in the courts is presented to discuss whether the presence of Elders in Indigenous sentencing courts is able to provide a buffer for the victim against experiencing gendered harms during the hearing.

Fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Indigenous schoolchildren

TO THE EDITOR: A causal connection between alcoholic mothers and developmental delays and physical abnormalities in their babies was identified in the 1970s and termed fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Other less extreme but still disabling effects fall under the umbrella term of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). Some studies have found higher prevalences of FAS among indigenous children in several countries, including Australia. However, none are as high as those cited in a webcast video program produced by the Rural Health Education Foundation and accredited by (and examinable for professional development points awarded by) the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, Australian College of Rural and Remote Medicine, Pharmaceutical Society of Australia, Royal College of Nursing Australia, and the Australian Physiotherapy Association.5 In this program, an Indigenous Australian health worker states that 540 out of 614 children aged under 12 in an (unnamed) Indigenous community are “already showing signs of primary and secondary disabilities associated with FAS and FASD”.5 These findings are not sourced and therefore not verifiable. We believe that unsubstantiated claims such as this can fuel racism against Indigenous children. Research conducted within a Queensland Aboriginal community school found that teachers were using information such as that provided in the video program to explain students’ poor school performances, when no formal diagnoses of FASD had been made for the children. It is racially discriminatory to impute a lifelong and incurable disability to Indigenous children when no teratogenic condition has been diagnosed. The prevalence of FAS and FASD has not been comprehensively established in Indigenous or non-Indigenous communities in Australia. There are other reasons why Indigenous students might not be succeeding in school, such as hearing impairments, being taught in Standard English (which is not their first language), or being assessed with culturally and linguistically biased school and IQ tests. Stigmatising them as intellectually impaired can lead to low self-esteem, behavioural problems, and absences from school. These outcomes have been noted here and overseas, yet some educationalists persist in blaming prenatal factors (including “bad genes”) rather than addressing the more difficult issues of systemic racism in the educational setting. In light of the federal government’s campaign to protect Indigenous children and to encourage their educational potential, as well as its general attack on binge drinking, it is essential to fund programs that address FAS and FASD in both Indigenous and nonIndigenous communities. Further, all governments need to support the dissemination of clear and substantiated information on this preventable cause of intellectual impairment.

A review of engagement of Indigenous Australians within mental health and substance abuse services

Substance misuse is a significant issue in Australia, and a large proportion of individuals with substance misuse disorders have co-existing mental health disorders. There is evidence that Indigenous Australians are more likely than non-Indigenous Australians to experience the adverse effects of alcohol consumption, and that mental health disorders are more prevalent in Indigenous communities than non-Indigenous communities. Indigenous Australians currently do not access mental health and substance abuse services at a level which is consistent with their level of need, and this is largely due to inconsistent or insufficient culturally respectful mental health services. This paper provides a review of relevant literature, which indicates an increasing need for mental health and substance abuse services that are sensitive to the needs of Indigenous Australians, and discusses engagement challenges and what is needed to increase engagement and improve outcomes for these clients. Future research should aim to identify which approaches to mental health and substance abuse service provision are associated with better outcomes for Indigenous clients, and ways of increasing the cultural respectfulness of these services.