Non-governmental Research Articles

Diplomacy beyond boundaries: South Korean NGOs and informal disaster diplomacy during the North Korean famine

ABSTRACT The North Korean famine of the mid-1990s presented a complex humanitarian crisis and an unexpected opportunity for inter-Korean engagement. While official inter-Korean relations remained strained, South Korean non-governmental organizations (NGOs) emerged as crucial actors in informal disaster diplomacy. This study examines how these NGOs navigated the challenging terrain between humanitarian aid and political influence, revealing both their vital contributions and the constraints imposed by government control over aid policy. Despite a burgeoning civil society and growing public calls for engagement, the South Korean government maintained a tight grip on aid to the North. This bureaucratic hurdle limited the scope and impact of NGO efforts, despite their commitment to cooperation and alleviating suffering. Through this case study, we analyze the interplay of social and political forces that shaped inter-Korean relations during the famine and its aftermath (1995-2010), offering insights into the ongoing challenges and potential of non-state actors in disaster diplomacy and the tangled dynamics that shaped inter-Korean interactions throughout this critical period.

Original Research: Nurses' Perceptions of the Role of Nursing Organizations in Promoting Engagement with the Sustainable Development Goals: A Global Study.

RNs are integral to achieving the United Nations' 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Professional nursing organizations can play a significant role in educating and preparing nurses to work more effectively toward achieving the SDGs. While there is much literature that speaks to the importance of nurses engaging in these goals, there is a lack of research that has explored nurses' perceptions of the role of professional nursing organizations in promoting SDG-related knowledge and engagement. Since 2012, Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing (Sigma) has been formally accredited as a nongovernmental organization with special consultative status to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. As such, Sigma is committed to educating RNs about the SDGs and engaging them in working to advance the goals. This study examined RNs' learning preferences regarding the SDGs, and their perceptions of their professional nursing organization's engagement in advancing these goals, its recognition of nursing's contributions to these goals, and its impact on increasing nurses' knowledge of these goals. This descriptive cross-sectional study used convenience and snowball sampling methods to recruit participants from multiple countries. Data were collected via an anonymous online survey. Descriptive and nonparametric statistics were used for data analysis. The majority (84%) of Sigma members enrolled in this study believed Sigma should be actively engaged in advancing the SDGs. Forty-eight percent were aware of Sigma's engagement and 44% reported that Sigma had increased their knowledge of the SDGs. When comparing participants who were Sigma members to those who were not, Sigma members had significantly higher levels of perceived knowledge of the SDGs and higher levels of belief that nurses are integral to SDG advancement. There were no significant between-group differences regarding nurses' desire to know more about the goals, what nurses are doing to advance them, and how to take action themselves. Participants' top 3 preferred means of learning about the SDGs were emailed and online newsletters (28.8%), webinars and online presentations (24.3%), and internet websites (14.9%). The results of this study underscore the importance of professional nursing organizations' efforts to increase nurses' engagement with the SDGs and can be used in developing multilevel strategies to further educate nurses about the SDGs.

“…They were just treating her Symptom by Symptom”: maternal experiences of having a child with spinal muscular atrophy in Ghana

BackgroundChildren with Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) face the challenges of a rare condition impacting their motor neurons, placing substantial caregiving burdens on their mothers. Despite being primary caregivers, mothers of children with SMA in Ghana often find their voices unheard, with restricted access to vital interventions like counselling, support groups, and respite care designed to aid them. This study aimed to explore the experiences of mothers caring for children with SMA in Ghana, where the diagnosis is often delayed and support systems are limited.MethodsWe conducted an interpretative phenomenological study with a purposive sample of seven mothers whose children, aged between 8 and 24 months, were diagnosed with Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) and registered with the Rare Disease Ghana Initiative (RDGI). Individual interviews were conducted between August and September 2023 using semi-structured interview guides. The data were manually analysed using a pen-and-paper method. The study adhered to ethical guidelines, including informed consent procedures and confidentiality measures to protect participants’ rights and privacy.ResultsThis study explored mothers’ experiences caring for children with SMA, revealing a spectrum of challenges that impact their physical, emotional, spiritual, and social well-being. The findings identified five dominant themes and thirteen subcategories, encompassing issues such as sleep deprivation, mental health concerns, emotional turmoil, practical difficulties, and social isolation. It was also found that mothers tend to have a deep connection to their faith and a sense of closeness to God during challenging times, which provides them with strength and comfort. This collectively identifies the difficult journey of these mothers as they seek diagnosis and treatment for their children.ConclusionThe study identified challenges faced by mothers in caring for their children with SMA. These challenges are reported to significantly impact their physical, psychological, social, and spiritual well-being. To support these mothers effectively, it is recommended that the Ministry of Health, Ghana Health Service, healthcare professionals, policymakers, and non-governmental organisations in Ghana should consider community engagement and education, integration of spiritual care, and psychosocial support programmes.

Emergency managers' challenges with wildfires and related cascading hazards in California.

This study investigates the complexities faced by emergency managers in wildfire-prone areas to uncover pressing issues and potential solutions. Four themes are discerned through three focus group discussions with emergency managers from nine counties across California. First, there is unequal access to resources for both risk assessment and response, with counties that have fewer resources facing significant challenges in effectively managing wildfire risks. Second, effective risk communication depends on the available resources and the unique characteristics of each community. Participants stress the need for improved communication tools to reach vulnerable groups (e.g., seniors, individuals with disabilities, non-English-speaking residents). Third, the complexity and confusion surrounding multi-level collaboration in wildfire management is a recurring theme. Participants note that unclear roles and responsibilities between state and federal agencies hinder response efforts, underscoring the need for better coordination and transparent communication at all levels. Fourth, innovative responses (e.g., creative evacuation strategies, collaborative efforts) are recognized as imperative for managing wildfires and their cascading impacts in resource-constrained areas. The findings highlight that achieving equitable and effective preparation, response, and resilience for vulnerable communities requires a comprehensive understanding of wildfire severity and community susceptibility, coupled with active collaboration among emergency managers, policymakers, and both governmental and non-governmental organizations.

Ageing Healthy: Perceptions of Older Persons, Community Members, and Other Stakeholders in Uganda.

Promoting healthy ageing would benefit from an understanding of what this means to stakeholders. We explored healthy ageing perceptions in rural and peri-urban Ugandan communities. Community dialogues, focus group discussions with older persons, community members, community-based organization leaders, key informant interviews with Ministries of Gender (2), Health (1), non-governmental organizations (3) and elderly representatives (5) were held. Thematic content analysis framework was used. Physical perceptions of ageing healthy included physical fitness, absence of health challenges, good physical appearance and looking younger. Emotional perceptions were a stress-free life with children's care, a balanced diet, basic needs and activity involvement. Socio-economic included financial stability, medical accessibility, future planning and network engagement. Spirituality, ageing with dignity and knowledge of body changes were others. The study provides insight into physical, emotional, and socio-economic perceptions of healthy ageing. Additional research in other settings would inform the UN Decade of Healthy Ageing.

Crossing borders to meet cardiac surgical needs: A scoping review on patients seeking cardiac surgery abroad.

Over 100 countries do not have a local cardiac surgeon, whereas capacity, coverage, or cultural constrains may limit access to cardiac surgical care in-country. This scoping review aims to summarize the current literature of patients seeking cardiac surgical care abroad and determine research gaps for this understudied aspect of global surgical care. A scoping review was conducted on patients seeking cardiac surgery outside of their home country using MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, SCOPUS, WHO Global Index Medicus, and PubMed databases. Relevant articles were descriptively and quantitatively summarized. Out of a total of 49 articles and 6351 patients, the most common procedures were coronary artery bypass grafts & valve procedures (N​=​3948; 62​%) and congenital heart disease repairs (N​=​2049; 32​%). The most prevalent countries of origin were Japan, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates. The United States, France, and the United Kingdom were the most common destination countries. Most patients (N​=​1483; 23​%) sought care abroad due to limited therapeutic options in the home country. Funding sources stemmed comparably from government funding, non-governmental organization funding, and out-of-pocket payments. The extent of and reasons for individuals traveling abroad for cardiac surgery are poorly described. Localizing cardiac care, while requiring significant resources, may lead to substantial cost savings and improved access to care. Until then, improving access to international travel for cardiac surgery remains an important strategy.

Scaling up access to antiretroviral treatment for HIV: lessons from a key populations program in Nigeria.

Over the years, Nigeria has recorded significant progress in controlling the HIV epidemic in the country. HIV prevalence has reduced from 4.1% in 2010 to 1.4 in 2019. The number of people acquiring new HIV infections decreased from 120,000 in 2010 to 74,000 in 2021, and HIV-related deaths decreased from 82,000 in 2010 to 51,000 in 2021. However, the country still faces challenges such as high HIV transmission among key populations (KP) who account for 11% of new HIV infections. Over the years, the government and development partners involved in HIV response efforts in Nigeria have been establishing and scaling up access to services to help address the needs of KPs. Initially, services for KPs as with the general population in Nigeria were largely preventive. Treatment of PLHIV in Nigeria commenced in 2002 and has increased from about 15,000 to more than 1.78 million PLHIVs in 2023. Despite this progress in treatment coverage, however, KPs are not equitably covered. To address this gap, the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) launched an ambitious initiative-the Key Population Investment Fund (KPIF)-to target the unaddressed HIV-related needs of key populations (KPs) who are disproportionately affected by HIV. The KPIF initiative was implemented through partner organizations such as the Society for Family Health (SFH), a KP-friendly and indigenous non-governmental organization. Earlier, the program implemented by SFH was largely an HIV prevention program. SFH's transformation, transition, and growth to a comprehensive HIV prevention, care, and treatment service provider was necessary to bridge the gap in the needed expansion of HIV services to adequately meet the care needs of KPs and scale up programs. Therefore, this paper's aim is to share experiences in the transformation of SFH into a comprehensive HIV prevention, treatment, and care service provider in the hope that it may serve as a lesson for organizations with similar objectives.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: a critical examination in disaster situations

ABSTRACT Climate-related disasters are critical global challenges, and social work is vital in supporting individuals and communities to promote their well-being in response. This empirical research examines how Maslow’s hierarchy applies to social service provision in Oman following climate events, focusing on the framework’s potential and limitations within an Islamic cultural setting. This qualitative study employs 43 semi-structured interviews with a diverse group, including senior managers, social workers, non-governmental organization workers, religious leaders, and service users. Through thematic analysis, the data shows significant similarities between the needs of people affected by climate events and Maslow’s theory, which has led the state to provide services based on this hierarchy. However, the study emphasizes that in an Islamic society like Oman, spiritual needs are not confined to the higher levels of the hierarchy but must be addressed at all levels. This means religious practitioners should be involved in relief efforts from the beginning of such events. The study also illustrates the importance of maintaining robust communication networks, which should be considered a fundamental necessity. Policy, practice, and educational implications are discussed, proposing adaptations to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs within social work curricula and advocating for integrating spiritual needs into comprehensive disaster management frameworks.

'We're More Prepared than Before when we're hit': Understanding the Strategies Used by a Non-governmental Organization During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on populations worldwide, particularly on older adults residing in low - and middle-income countries. Due to these negative impacts, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) provided extensive support, which affected their operations. Using the social resilience framework, the purpose of this study was to better understand what strategies NGOs used to support vulnerable populations and how they are building back stronger from the COVID-19 pandemic. In the fall of 2022, 26 (virtual) in-depth interviews were conducted with staff and volunteers from an NGO supporting older adults in Uganda. Several key themes emerged including using existing resources to better support older adults and staff and the importance of having multiple sources of revenue to support organizational operations. The key lessons learned by NGO staff and volunteers can be utilized to enact policy and practice change to help strengthen NGOs' social resilience. This would allow them to continue implementing innovative strategies to support vulnerable populations during times of crisis.

Improving a supplier's social responsibility: the effect of competition and incomplete visibility

Firms face increasing pressure from consumers, governments, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to implement better social responsibility (SR) practices in their supply chains. However, a lack of visibility into suppliers' operations and competition can hinder a firm's efforts to improve SR in its supply chain. In this study, we consider two competing supply chains, each consisting of a single firm and a single supplier, and explore the case where the firms can invest in their suppliers' SR capabilities. We assume the firms do not have full visibility into the suppliers' SR practices. Moreover, the suppliers are under scrutiny from a third party that may disclose the suppliers' compliance levels to consumers. Our results show that increasing the intensity of price competition leads firms to invest more in their suppliers and improves suppliers' SR. We further show that a firm benefits from having full visibility into its supplier's SR practices only when the suppliers' unit investment costs are low. We extend our results to consider the case where consumers respond to the supplier's actual compliance level (rather than just the news of their noncompliance) and demonstrate the robustness of our findings.

Cognitive impairment and self-reported health outcomes among older adults: Longitudinal evidence from Australia.

Australia's population is ageing, with forecasts indicating that individuals aged 65years and over will account for >20% of the total population by 2066. Ageing is strongly linked with a significant decrease in cognitive capabilities. This study aimed to explore the association between cognitive impairment and four types of health outcomes among older Australians. Data used for this study was collected from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey. The final analysis consisted of 11,146 person-year observations from 7035 unique individuals from Wave 2012 and Wave 2016, respectively. A longitudinal random-effects generalised least squares, and ordered logistic regression were used to analyse the association between cognitive impairment and health outcomes. The study results suggest that cognitive impairment was negatively associated with general health, mental health, self-assessed health and health satisfaction. Older Australians with cognitive impairment scored lower on general health (β=-2.82, SE=0.56), mental health (β=-2.93, SE=0.53), self-assessed health (β=- 0.75, SE=0.10), and health satisfaction (β=-0.19, SE=0.09) compared to the counterparts without cognitive impairment. The heterogeneous results also showed cognitive impairment was associated with poor health outcomes across age groups. This study found evidence that cognitive impairment is associated with poor health outcomes. To enhance the physical and mental health and well-being of older adults, the community, government and non-government organizations, and other stakeholders should prioritize routine healthcare prevention, targeted interventions, and treatment practices, particularly for individuals with or at risk of cognitive impairment.

Prevalence of undernutrition and associated factors among adolescent pregnant women in Dolo-Ado town, Somali region, Ethiopia.

Maternal malnutrition, particularly among adolescent pregnant women, is a significant public health issue globally, with far-reaching consequences for both maternal and fetal health. It increases the risk of complications such as stillbirth, low birth weight,preterm birth, uterine bleeding, and other pregnancy-related issues. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of undernutrition and associated factors among adolescent pregnant women (aged < 20years) in the Dolo-Ado town, Somali region, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted from January 1-30, 2022, involving 380 pregnant adolescents randomly selected from the Dolo-Ado town. A structured, pretested questionnaire was used to gather data on socio-demographics, maternal nutrition, and obstetric characteristics. Nutritional status was assessed using mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), with undernutrition defined as MUAC ≤ 22cm. Data were collected via home visits, and the accuracy of anthropometric measurements was standardized through training and pretesting. Descriptive statistics were used for data description, and binary logistic regression was performed to explore the associations between independent and dependent variables. A total of 380 pregnant adolescents participated, achieving a 100% response rate. The mean age of the participants was 17.7 (± 0.78) years. Approximately 32.1% of the participants experienced food insecurity, and only 3% met the minimum dietary diversity score. The prevalence of undernutrition was 21% (79/380), as indicated by a MUAC of < 22cm. The high prevalence of undernutrition among pregnant adolescent women in Dolo-Ado poses a significant public health concern. Key factors associated with undernutrition include maternal education [AOR] of 3.9; 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.9-8.0), rural residence (AOR of 12; 95% CI: 3.5-42.9), low family income (AOR of 2.6; 95% CI: 1.2-5.4), food insecurity (AOR of 6.2; 95% CI: 2.8-13.9), iron-folic acid supplementation (AOR of 3.6; 95% CI: 1.7-7.5), and low dietary diversity intake (AOR of 13.1; 95% CI: 2.2-77.3). Therefore, targeted efforts to address family income, household food insecurity, dietary diversity, and access to iron-folic acid supplementation should be prioritized by both government and non-governmental organizations for pregnant adolescents.

Local open government issues: Experiences from Jalisco, Mexico

This study aims to analyze the main issues of open government in Jalisco, Mexico. Jalisco plays a leading role as the only pilot local government program of Open Government Partnership in the country. A qualitative approach and bibliometric analysis method were used in this study. The research data were obtained from the official website of the Government of Jalisco and sourced from the Google Scholar database. The findings of this study indicate that the study of open government in Jalisco is not popular. The topics that dominate the study of open government in Jalisco include transparency, corruption, citizen participation, accountability, and youth. While the latest and potential topics include transparency portal, health system, regulatory oversight, electoral participation, security, tax collection, and digital party. Jalisco is currently focusing on three main commitments of their open government, which include harmonization, unification, transparency, and corruption control in the Rules of Operation (ROP) of social programs aimed at Civil Society Organizations (CSOs); strengthening and incorporation of new elements in the digital platform for citizen participation in the creation and modification of laws; and preparation of an annex of sentences, with a clear and understandable wording, oriented to priority groups. These commitments have the potential to create a more open Jalisco government.

Patterns of microbial contamination on Northumberland Strait shores.

The re-emergence of episodic faecal contamination of Parlee and Murray Corner beaches, on the Northumberland Strait of New Brunswick, Canada, in 2017, raised renewed community concerns on the health, environmental and tourism sustainability of these community resources, and led to creation of an Integrated Watershed Management Plan for the Shediac Bay Watershed (October 2021). In response we have to date compiled, curated and made accessible 205,772 microbial water quality data records spanning over 80 years from Southeastern New Brunswick and the Northumberland Strait. This dataset derives in large part from Shellfish Surveys completed by Environment and Climate Change Canada, along with data generated by multiple government agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations and citizen science sources. Records derived from these multiple sources are now deposited in the Gordon Foundation's DataStream (https://atlanticdatastream.ca), an open access common platform for sharing structured information on fresh and marine water health, delivered on a pan-Canadian scale, in collaboration with regional monitoring networks. We herein outline our data assembly, curation and deposition, along with preliminary analyses of contamination patterns at three representative sites on the Northumberland Strait coast of New Brunswick. Our results suggest that cumulative rainfall over 48 h is useful in predicting contamination risk at the developed Parlee Beach, and thereby demonstrate how open data can be used to inform policy and management decisions.

Making waves: How to improve scholarly impact performance through stakeholder engagement

Most scholarly impact measures focus exclusively on an essential but single group of stakeholders: other researchers. However, business research aims to benefit not only other researchers (i.e., internal) but also additional (i.e., external) stakeholders. Accordingly, we offer an expanded multidimensional and multistakeholder conceptualization of scholarly impact that includes the following dimensions and their stakeholders: (1) personal (i.e., individual researchers), (2) theory and research (i.e., other researchers), (3) educational (i.e., students, parent institutions, and university community), (4) organizational (i.e., practitioners including managers, consultants, and industry), (5) societal (i.e., media, policymakers, governments, and nongovernmental organizations), and (6) global (i.e., international institutions). We also describe scholarly impact measures across these dimensions and stakeholders. Then, we extend the capacity, opportunity, and relevant exchanges (CORE) performance model to describe the construct of scholarly impact performance (SIP) and provide actionable recommendations that individuals and organizations can implement to enhance SIP across institutional contexts (i.e., research-intensive, teaching-oriented, and those in emerging countries). In sum, we offer a broader conceptualization of scholarly impact, measures, and recommendations for incentivizing and enhancing SIP. JEL Classification: A10, A13, D02, D21, F60, I20, I23, I26, L2

Experiences with HIV stigma, among other barriers, in oral healthcare settings in Türkiye

ABSTRACT Oral healthcare settings can be a challenging environment for people with HIV. Combined with problematic insurance policies, insufficient health literacy, and higher treatment fees, HIV stigma contributes to barriers when accessing oral healthcare. We conducted a descriptive study via an online survey with open-ended questions to understand the experiences of people with HIV in oral healthcare settings. The survey was administered by non-governmental organizations. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data via a critical realist approach. Seventy-five participants responded to survey between August and September 2023. Thematic analysis yielded three main themes: occurrences of stigma in healthcare, coping with HIV stigma and anxiety, and barriers beyond stigma. Participants reported a problematic understanding of HIV literature and stigma among dentists, which was manifested as excessive precaution measures, denial of care, unnecessary referrals, gossiping, discriminatory remarks and disclosure of HIV status without consent. This was reflected in people with HIV as self-stigma, fear of healthcare workers and avoidance of healthcare services. Advancements in dental education and post-qualification training are needed in infection control and ethics, while people with HIV need health education to preserve their rights and sustain good health and well-being to prevent adverse outcomes.

Building resilient healthcare distribution networks: Adapting to crises, securing supplies and improving scalability

Healthcare distribution networks are the backbone of effective medical supply chains, ensuring the timely delivery of critical resources to healthcare providers and patients. However, disruptions caused by crises such as pandemics, natural disasters, and geopolitical conflicts expose vulnerabilities in these networks, highlighting the urgent need for resilience, scalability, and security. This paper examines strategies to build robust healthcare distribution networks capable of adapting to crises, securing supply chains, and scaling operations efficiently to meet fluctuating demands. A resilient distribution network incorporates diversified sourcing strategies, regional warehousing, and advanced logistics planning to mitigate risks associated with supply chain disruptions. Digital transformation plays a critical role, with tools such as blockchain for secure and transparent supply tracking, artificial intelligence (AI) for demand forecasting, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices for real-time monitoring of medical supplies. These innovations enhance decision-making and enable rapid responses to emergencies. The study also explores the importance of collaboration among stakeholders, including governments, private organizations, and non-governmental entities, to create integrated systems that ensure the uninterrupted availability of healthcare supplies. Additionally, scalability is addressed through modular distribution models and data-driven optimization of delivery routes, which reduce costs and improve efficiency. This research underscores the need for proactive planning, investment in technology, and policy reforms to build resilient healthcare distribution networks. Such efforts not only safeguard supply chains during crises but also support long-term improvements in healthcare accessibility, efficiency, and patient outcomes.

Impact of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOS) on Increase of Social Economic Development in Rwanda

Impact of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOS) on Increase of Social Economic Development in Rwanda

Reflections on a critically‐applied anthropology of conservation and tourism field school in Honduras’ Bay Islands

AbstractThis article examines the inception, goals, and impacts of an ethnographic field school in conservation, culture, and environmental change, established in collaboration with small conservation nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in Honduras’ Bay Islands. It traces the author's journey from decades of critical and activist ethnography on rhetorical erasure and territorial dispossession of African and Indigenous descendants by conservation and tourism development towards the surprising turn (to the author) to establish a study abroad program that combined conservation research tourism and ethnographic fieldwork. The article provides an overview of the central themes explored during the program: neocolonialism, racialized dispossession, and displacement‐in‐place in Caribbean tourism; neoliberal conservation and the transformation of landscapes through land privatization; and the impacts of climate change, ecological grief, and community resiliency in the face of environmental change. Student feedback, community benefits, and goals for the program's future are detailed.

Harnessing Social Media and NGO Collaboration for Advancing Sustainable Ecotourism Policy: A Pathway to Sustainable Tourism Development

ABSTRACTSocial media has emerged as a powerful catalyst in promoting sustainable tourism development (STD) by raising awareness, attracting tourists, fostering community engagement, and shaping policy decisions, particularly in developing regions like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan. However, the combined influence of social media usage, non‐governmental organization (NGO) support, and STD remains underexplored. This study, grounded in organizational learning theory, explores how social media and NGO collaboration contribute to ecotourism policy and STD in Pakistan. The socioeconomic framework in Pakistan, particularly in the KPK region, forms the background against which local dynamics shape such processes. A cross‐sectional survey was conducted, collecting data from 482 respondents in the KPK tourism sector, providing valuable insights into the region's socio‐economic context. This survey approach captures diverse stakeholder perceptions within the KPK tourism sector. The findings reveal that social media significantly influences ecotourism policy, advancing STD. Moreover, NGO support (NGS) serves as a crucial moderating factor, enhancing the role of social media in shaping effective ecotourism policies. This research offers valuable insights into leveraging social media and NGO partnerships to promote sustainable tourism practices, presenting practical implications for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers dedicated to advancing STD and environmental sustainability. In particular, this study highlights the infrastructural and technological challenges of applying social media effectively in developing countries. A unique contribution of this study is its focus on social media's role in a developing region—a context largely underrepresented in existing literature.