Non-farm Jobs Research Articles

Determinants of participation of rural farm households in non-farm activities in Kwara state, Nigeria: a paradigm of poverty alleviation

This paper attempt to examine the factors that determine non-farm occupations among rural farming households and to what extent has livelihood strategies improved the wellbeing of their households. Primary data were generated through random sampling of 200 respondents from four (4) Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Kwara State, Nigeria through field surveys. Descriptive statistics, double hurdle models and Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) index were employed in the analysis. The result confirmed the assertion that economic factors are often the most important determinants of searching for non-farm job. The proceeds from non-farm activities were used mainly either for consumption (34.5%) to minimize the income fluctuation or, to supplement the working capital (26.5%) for their primary occupation through purchase of farm inputs. The results also indicated that the factors that influence the rural farming household decision to participate in non-farm activities showed slight variation from those influencing level of decision (livelihood strategies) taken to engage in non-farm activities and where it does, not by the same magnitude and direction. For instance, distance travelled and adjusted household size was found to significantly influence the farmer's decision. In contrary, education, poverty status and per capita income did influence the level of participation significantly. Of the sampled 200 respondents, 49.5% live on less than US$1 a day which portends extreme poverty and about 87% on less than US $1.5 a day. Concerted effort by stakeholders must encourage continuous farming throughout the year through irrigation to avoid part-time farming which may become the dominant farm model. Key Words: Extreme poverty, rural households, service sector, Nigeria

Impacts of Chinese Urbanization on Farmers’ Social Networks: Evidence from the Urbanization Led by Farmland Requisition in Shanghai

AbstractFollowing rapid urban expansion, numerous rural villages have been requisitioned for urban development in Chinese cities. During the prevailing urbanization process, displaced farmers within a village are wholly relocated into an urban resettlement housing district in transitional China. This study aims to examine whether those farmers still retain previous widespread and dense social networks in urban environment. The study is primarily a case study in Shanghai; data were obtained through semistructured interviews, questionnaire survey and field observations. The findings show that the urbanization process led by farmland requisition gives rise to four major shifts, which include residence shift from farmhouses to urban apartments, household registration identity shift from peasantry to urbanites, occupation shift from farming to nonfarming jobs, and resident structure shift from single village to multiple sources. Such sociospatial changes have transformed the basis and number of social ties, fr...

Socio-Economic Determinants of Household Income among Ethnic Minorities in the North-West Mountains, Vietnam

This paper investigates both commune and household determinants of household income among ethnic minorities in the North-West Mountains – the poorest region of Vietnam. The findings show that the vast majority of the sample households heavily depend on agricultural activities. Factors affecting household income per capita are examined using multiple regression models and the findings confirm the important role of education, non-farm employment and fixed assets in improving household income. In addition, some commune variables such as the presence of the means of transportation, post offices and non-farm job opportunities are found to have an increasing impact on household income. The findings suggest that policies for poverty reduction should aim at both commune and household levels. Policies that focus on improving the access of ethnic minorities to education and non-farm employment are expected to be effective ways of enhancing their income.

Aging Small Scale Coconut Farmers in Central Philippines -- Their Perspectives on Farming, Succession and Future Impact on the Local Ecology

The goal of past administrations of the Philippine government was to enablethe country to be self-sustainable in food production. This paper takes intostudy the coconut farmers; the country being a prime producer and exporter ofcoconuts. Many past and recent studies have shown that the coconut industryhas often been beset with numerous problems and small scale coconut farmersare poor, with the causes ranging from lack of finance, technical assistance andsocio-cultural factors. This study further explored the perspectives of smallscale coconut farmers on the issues of aging and succession, obstacles andopportunities of farming, as well as the future impact on the local ecology. Thisstudy is conducted in the province of Negros Oriental, Municipality of Bacong, in Central Philippines. Qualitative methods were primarily used in the research, including a survey, key informant interviews, participant observation. Thestudy revealed that family members currently involved in coconut farming aredecreasing, and a significant number of families do not have members to succeedthe parent-farmers, preferring to go for non-farming jobs. Farms are expected to be neglected. Keywords - Small-scale coconut farmers, poverty, perspectives, succession, local ecology,descriptive design, succession, Philippines

Exploring the autonomous adaptation strategies to climate change and climate variability in selected villages in the rural northern savannah zone of Ghana

Evidence abounds attesting to changes in the global climate. In Ghana, climate change and climate variability have brought several exposure-sensitivities on different people and at different times. Due to the multiplicity of climate change and climate variability effects, adaptation strategies invariably could be influenced by several factors. This paper assesses the adoption of adaptation strategies in the rural northern savannah zone of Ghana as a result of climate change and variability. Using two villages each from Savelugu Nanton, West Mamprusi and Kassena Nankana East Districts, which are slightly different as case studies, the paper unearthed panoply of varied adaptation strategies in each of them including intensification of irrigation; integration of livestock production; changes in tillage practices; fertiliser application on farms; shift from agriculture to non-farm jobs; seasonal migration and purchase of drought insurance for maize. The results indicate that the relativity in adoption and utilisation of the different adaptive strategies are interlinked with geographical, social, economic, institutional and political factors and processes in the villages. The findings drum home the essentiality of location-specific planned adaptation strategies for climate change through a bottom-up approach, in order to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability.

Land pressures, the evolution of farming systems, and development strategies in Africa: A synthesis

Evidence assembled in this special issue of Food Policy shows that rising rural population densities in parts of Africa are profoundly affecting farming systems and the region’s economies in ways that are underappreciated in current discourse on African development issues. This study synthesizes how people, markets and governments are responding to rising land pressures in Africa, drawing on key findings from the various contributions in this special issue. The papers herein revisit the issue of Boserupian agricultural intensification as an important response to land constraints, but they also go further than Boserup and her followers to explore broader responses to land constraints, including non-farm diversification, migration, and reduced fertility rates. Agricultural and rural development strategies in the region will need to more fully anticipate the implications of Africa’s rapidly changing land and demographic situation, and the immense challenges that mounting land pressures pose in the context of current evidence of unsustainable agricultural intensification, a rapidly rising labor force associated with the region’s current demographic conditions, and limited nonfarm job creation. These challenges are manageable but will require explicit policy actions to address the unique development challenges in densely populated rural areas.

The implementation and impacts of China's largest payment for ecosystem services program as revealed by longitudinal household data

As the largest payment for ecosystem services initiative in the developing world, China's Sloping Land Conversion Program subsidizes households to restore marginal croplands and other degraded fields. While it has attracted broad attention, many questions regarding its performance remain unanswered. Using descriptive and econometric analyses based on a longitudinal dataset containing a large number of surveyed households over 1999–2008, we examine the multi-faceted changes in program enrollment, land and labor allocation, agricultural production, and income structure and inequality. We find that the program has affected land use substantially by simultaneously retiring degraded cropland and increasing forest and vegetation covers, which have accelerated labor transfer into off-farm sectors. Meanwhile, households have intensified agriculture by increasing their production expenditures, enabling them to offset some of the negative effects of the cropland set-aside and reduced farm labor use. While the subsidies have been a significant source of income to the participants, most households have had a larger portion of their income come from non-farming jobs, leading to the increase of average family income by over 250%, and the reduction of rural poverty and thus the most vulnerable population. As impressive as these changes may be, the program still faces great challenges before the ecosystems are adequately recovered to provide their services.

10.5937/ekonhor1402117t = A review on the link between nonfarm employment, land and rural livelihoods in developing countries and Vietnam

This paper has reviewed recent empirical evidence on the link between nonfarm employment, land and rural livelihoods in the context of increasing a land loss to urbanization and industrialization in some developing countries and Vietnam. It was found that while land is of great importance to a number of countries, it seems to be less important to others. Land shortage can be a positive factor encouraging rural households' participation in nonfarm activities and improving their welfare in countries in which non-farm job opportunities are available to a large part of the population. Nevertheless, this can negatively affect rural household livelihoods in countries lacking such nonfarm jobs. In Vietnam, nonfarm employment has gained increasing importance to rural livelihoods. In addition, in peri-urban areas where more and more farmland has been lost to rapid urbanization and industrialization, nonfarm employment was found to help households reduce their dependence on farmland and improve their welfare.

Assessment of Food Security Situation among Farming Households in Rural Areas of Kano State, Nigeria

Achieving food security is still a major problem for households in most rural areas of Nigeria. This study was therefore designed to assess the food security status among farming households in rural areas of Kano state, Nigeria. The study utilized a multistage random sampling technique to +select a sample of 120 rural farm households for interview. Data collected were analysed using percentages, mean score, logistic regression and food security index. Using the food security index approach, the study revealed that 74% of the respondents were food secure while 26% were food insecure. The results of the logistic regression revealed that educational level (p0.05; z = 1.95), sex (p0.05; z = 1.99), household size (p0.05; -4.29) and access to credit (p0.05; z = 2.4) were significant determinants of food security. Also, the major effect of food insecurity on the households include reduction in household income/ savings due to increased expenditure on food (M= 3.58), among others. The perceived coping strategies in cushioning the effects of food insecurity include engaging in off-farm and non-farm jobs to increase household income, (M= 2.77), among others. The study therefore recommends the fast tracking of already established policy measures aimed at reducing food insecurity in the country. Also, efforts aimed at reducing food insecurity among rural farming households should focus on increasing household income and food supply.

Social Mobility in Five African Countries

This paper conceptualizes intergenerational occupational mobility between the farm and non‐farm sectors in five African countries, measures it using nationally representative household survey data, and analyzes its determinants through a comparative method based on pooled logit regressions. We first analyze intergenerational gross mobility. Until the end of the 1980s, intergenerational flows toward the non‐farm sector are high in Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea, flows toward the farm sector are more often observed in Ghana and Uganda, and Madagascar displays less mobility in either direction. The pace of change in occupational structures and the magnitude of labor income dualism between the farm and non‐farm sectors appear to explain those differences. We then net out structural change across generations and establish the first measurement of intergenerational net mobility in those five African countries. Ghana and Uganda stand out as relatively more fluid societies. Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea come next while Madagascar shows a particularly high reproduction of occupations. Educational mobility accounts for the Madagascar exception to a large extent, but not for the differences between the other countries. Spatial dualism of employment, i.e. the geographic segregation of farm and non‐farm jobs, accounts for most of those remaining differences. We argue that the main determinants of intergenerational mobility, namely income and employment dualisms, likely reflect a historical legacy of different colonial administrations.

‘Recession push’ and ‘prosperity pull’ entrepreneurship in a rural developing context

In this paper, the ‘recession push’ and the ‘prosperity pull’ hypotheses are used to analyse the effect of growing non-farm wage employment on entrepreneurship in a rural developing context. Data are collected in a rural household survey in 110 communes in central Vietnam which includes subjective owner assessments of reasons for starting non-farm businesses. This way it is possible to separately test the two hypotheses by distinguishing opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs. We use clustered probit regression analyses and control for possible endogeneity in order to predict participation in entrepreneurship. The results show that better access to non-farm wage employment increases the likelihood of becoming an opportunity entrepreneur but has no effect on necessity entrepreneurship. This, therefore, supports the ‘prosperity pull’ hypothesis but not the ‘recession push’ hypothesis. The growing non-farm economy is likely to accelerate the emergence of opportunity entrepreneurship in rural areas. However, necessity entrepreneurs are suffering from a lack of individual and household assets which pushes them into entrepreneurship regardless of non-farm job opportunities in the surrounding area.

The Effects of Large-Scale Hog Production on Local Labor Markets

Although the negative externalities of large-scale hog production have been well studied, econometric estimates of its potentially positive labor markets effects are lacking. We use the geographic shifts in large-scale hog production between 1992 and 2007 to estimate such production's effects on local farm and nonfarm labor markets. We find that every additional 1000 head at large-scale facilities in a county generates 0.57 additional large-scale hog operation jobs, 0.04 fewer small-scale hog operation jobs, 0.16 fewer nonhog-related agricultural jobs, and 0.59 additional nonfarm jobs, for a total of 0.96 jobs. Our total estimate is lower than previous ones based on input-output modeling.

Assessment of Rural Households Poverty in Nigeria: Evidence from Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State, Nigeria

Poverty is a topical issue in developing countries especially Africa and Nigeria in particular. The dearth of studies on quantitative determinants of poverty in Nigeria is a major weak point in the countrys p overty reduction policy and strategy formulation. This study analyzed the incidence, severity and the determinants of household poverty in Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State, Nigeria using the data collected through well - structured questionnaire from120 respondents who were selected through a multistage sampling technique.Analytical techniques used include descriptive statistics (frequency counts, percentages and mean values),poverty Indicesand ordinary least square technique (OLS); this was used t o assess the determinants of poverty among the households. The findings revealed that poverty is higher among households that have old heads, female heads, and large household size, engage in farming as the only occupation and have no formal education; poverty therefore rises with the increase in household size while it reduces with increase in level of education, farm size and participation non -farm jobs as alternative livelihood source (livelihood diversification). Gender, household size, years spent in school, farm size and non-farm jobs were found to be important and significant factors determining poverty in the study area. The study recommends that,

The Socioeconomic Conditions of Agricultural Women Labourers in Uttar Pradesh: A Case-Study of Muzaffarnagar and Baghpat District

A woman is the modern builder of any nation's destiny. Women are regarded as the backbone of the rural scene. Women workforce outside the four walls is larger in rural areas than in urban India. Most of the women perform various types of work for their livelihood, and agriculture is considered as the biggest unorganised sector in which a large number of rural women actively take part. Although women have always played a key role in agricultural production, their importance both as workers and as managers of farms has been growing, as an increasing number of men are moving onto non-farm jobs. Agricultural labourers, mostly landless, constitute the poorest segment of the Indian agricultural population. They belong to the economically backward and oppressed section of the society. They mainly belong to the scheduled castes and other backward communities. They are basically unskilled and unorganised and work in farms of prosperous big farmers as casual workers on wages for a larger part of the year (Padhi, 2007). One of the most disquieting features of the rural economy of India during the past several decades has been its constantly increasing trend in the number of landless labourers. Factors like rapid growth of population, law of inheritance, rise in the cost of agricultural inputs and decline in small-scale industries have all been responsible for this increase The phenomena of under-employment, under-development and surplus population are simultaneously manifested in the daily lives and living of agricultural labourers.

Time and timing, work and action: Aspects of rural livelihoods in northwest Nigeria

Rural West Africans confront a challenging array of circumstances in pursuit of their livelihoods, which are negotiated through repertoires of knowledge, skill, wisdom and information that are held individually, communally or as the prerogative of experts. Of some significance is timing: finding the most effective or propitious moment for action. On the farm, anticipating the beginning and progress of the rains is crucial and sought through the empirical observation of natural phenomena, or as in northwest Nigeria additionally through agricultural star calendars and almanacs by Muslim clerics. Furthermore, some clerics use divination to identify propitious moments for their clients whereby they may achieve success in non-farm jobs and businesses that are an integral part of rural livelihoods. Taking action to achieve particular outcomes on and off the farm raises issues about local people's understanding of the physical world and their place within it, and the power of religion and the supernatural. An appreciation of such matters would appear to be crucial for those from the scientific and technological North who may be attempting to transform African societies.

Analysis on factors behind the decline of the agricultural labor share in total labor force of China (1990–2030)

The agricultural labor share in total labor force is determined by many factors, such as number of new participators and those leaving from labor force and transferring to non-farming. This article estimates the contribution of the determining factors for the changes of agricultural labor share during the period 1990–2030. Given the assumption about the average annual decline of the agricultural labor share in the future, the number of new participators in agricultural labor is estimated to decline from 20.23 million during 2005–2010 to 11.42 million during 2025–2030, and the numbers of leaving and transferring are estimated to change from 42.47 million and 38.32 million to 27.04 million and 29.49 million, respectively, during the same period. The average annual non-farming job creation may decline from 13.938 million to 7.016 million. Given the fact that pressure on agricultural labor transfer and non-farming job creation tends to ease but will exist in the long term. China shall adjust its employment policies from focusing only on quantity expansion to equally stress on ‘quantity and quality, speed, and structure’.

Collective Action for Local Commons Management in Rural Yunnan, China: Empirical Evidence and Hypotheses Using Evolutionary Game Theory

This paper presents hypotheses regarding collective actions for irrigation management, with the help of evolutionary game theory. Data for the analysis were collected by the author from the irrigation system of rural Yunnan, China. An econometric analysis reveals that collective action will be forthcoming in rural communities where few nonfarm job opportunities are provided, the degree of income disparity is quite small, and resource restrictions are moderately problematic. The finding that communities without local government intervention outperform those with intervention supports the proverbial view that external agencies should delegate significant parts of the control rights of common pool resources to immediate stakeholders. <i>(JEL O13, Q25)</i>

Urbanization in China and the Coordinated Development Model—The case of Chengdu

China's urbanization faces two greatest difficulties of creating non-farm jobs to “landless farmers” and providing required amenities and social services to urbanites-to-be. In the earlier phase of development, TVE employment had provided important relief to the job pressure. Later, the “Small-city Strategy” that emphasized forming towns and small cities around where rural population resided successfully deterred rural population's entry into large cities. Today, China is implementing a Coordinated Development between the urban and rural sectors, aiming to reach a balanced development between the two sectors by making not only large cities more welcoming to rural migrants but also the small cities, towns, and areas where rural population now reside harder to leave. At the core of the coordination are three concentrations of rural residents, farmland, and firms, intended to help rural residents to settle in large cities, small cities and towns, as well as new residential areas in the countryside, to de-segment land to realize economies of scale, and to gather firms of a same industry in organized industrial areas to gain agglomeration economies and create non-farm jobs. This article examines the trajectory of China's urbanization, analyzes the working mechanism of the Coordinated Development model, and investigates Chengdu's practice of the Coordinated Development, which will help to provide insights into the new developments in China's urbanization.

中国二元结构的演化及特点 The Evolution and Characteristics of China’s Dual Economic Structure

我国二元经济结构最早可以追溯到19 世纪中叶。1949 年建国后，由于选择了重工业优先发展的赶超型发展战略，二元经济结构进一步加强。1978 年以来的经济改革首先在微观个体进行，农业和农村改革的成功，缩小了工农之间、城乡之间的二元差异，1978~1984 为二元结构的减弱期。1985年开启了城市改革，随之城市经济高速增长，但农业增长放缓，二元经济结构再次加强。无论是从农业与非农业比较劳动生产率还是从二元对比系数来看，我国二元经济结构强度虽有所缓和，但十分缓慢。由于第三产业发展滞后影响了中国就业结构的转换，而城市化滞后导致城乡差距进一步扩大，因此，要进一步推进中国的二元经济结构转换必需加速城市化发展进程，以带动第三产业的发展，促进农村剩余劳动力向非农产业转移。 China’s dual economic structure, dating back to the mid-19th century, was strengthened after the foundation of People’s Republic of China owing to the adoption of the catching-up and surpassing strategies,which gave priority to heavy industry development. In 1978, the economic reforms was initiated in micro-economic units and the success in agricultural and rural reforms reduced the discrepancy between workers and farmers as well as the urban and rural areas, so the dual economic structure had been weakened during the period of 1978 to 1984. Since 1985 the cities’ economy had grown rapidly with the reform beginning in cities. However, the agricultural growth slowed down, which once again led to the strengthening of the dual economic structure. From then on whether it is from the view of the agriculture and non-agricultural comparative productivity or from the dual contrast coefficient, China’s dual economic structure has been eased, but very slowly. On one hand, the relatively slow development of the tertiary industry has affected the conversion of the employment structure. On the other hand, the urbanization lags behind the economic growth, which enlarges the difference between the urban and rural areas. Therefore, in order to promote the transformation of China's dual economy it is essential to accelerate urbanization, for it can spur the development of the tertiary industry as well as the transfer of the surplus agricultural labor force to non-farm jobs.

Gender, Generations, and Non-Farm Participation

This paper presents an empirical analysis of intergenerational linkages in non-farm participation with a focus on gender effects. The evidence, using survey data from Nepal, shows that the mother exerts strong influence on a daughter's employment choice: having a mother in non-farm sector raises a daughter's probability of non-farm participation by 200 percent. The effects are truly dramatic for skilled non-farm jobs; having a mother in skilled job raises daughter's probability by 1200 percent. Having a father in non-farm, on the other hand, does not have any significant effect on a son's probability of non-farm participation when the endogeneity of education and assets is corrected for by Two Stage Conditional Maximum Likelihood approach. However, a moderate positive intergenerational correlation between fathers and sons exists for skilled jobs.