Non-existing Words Research Articles

More than words: can free reports adequately measure the richness of perception?

The question of the richness (or sparseness) of conscious experience has evoked ongoing debate and discussion. Claims for both richness and sparseness are supported by empirical data, yet they are often indirect, and alternative explanations have been put forward. Recently, it has been suggested that current experimental methods limit participants' responses, thereby preventing researchers from assessing the actual richness of perception. Instead, free verbal reports were presented as a possible way to overcome this limitation. As part of this approach, a novel paradigm of freely reported words was developed using a new metric, intersubjective agreement (IA), with experimental results interpreted as capturing aspects of conscious perception. Here, we challenge the validity of freely reported words as a tool for studying the richness of conscious experience. We base our claims on two studies (each composed of three experiments), where we manipulated the richness of percepts and tested whether IA changed accordingly. Five additional control experiments were conducted to validate the experimental logic and examine alternative explanations. Our results suggest otherwise, presenting four challenges to the free verbal report paradigm: first, impoverished stimuli did not evoke lower IA scores. Second, the IA score was correlated with word frequency in English. Third, the original positive relationship between IA scores and rated confidence was not found in any of the six experiments. Fourth, a high rate of nonexisting words was found, some of which described items that matched the gist of the scene but did not appear in the image. We conclude that a metric based on freely reported words might be better explained by vocabulary conventions and gist-based reports than by capturing the richness of perception.

Here We Go Again: Modern GEC Models Need Help with Spelling

The study focuses on how modern GEC systems handle character-level errors. We discuss the ways these errors effect the performance of models and test how models of different architectures handle them. We conclude that specialized GEC systems do struggle against correcting non-existent words, and that a simple spellchecker considerably improve overall performance of a model. To evaluate it, we assess the models over several datasets. In addition to CoNLL-2014 validation dataset, we contribute a synthetic dataset with higher density of character-level errors and conclude that, provided that models generally show very high scores, validation datasets with higher density of tricky errors are a useful tool to compare models. Lastly, we notice cases of incorrect treatment of non-existent words on experts' annotation and contribute a cleared version of this dataset. In contrast to specialized GEC systems, LLaMA model used for GEC task handles character-level errors well. We suggest that this better performance is explained by the fact that Alpaca is not extensively trained on annotated texts with errors, but gets as input grammatically and orthographically correct texts

Semantic similarity information discrimination for video captioning

Video captioning is a task that aims to automatically describe objects and their actions in videos using natural language sentences. The correct understanding of vision and language information is critical for video captioning tasks. Many existing methods usually fuse different features to generate sentences. However, the sentences have many improper nouns and verbs. Inspired by the successes of fine-grained visual recognition, we treat the problem of improper words to discriminate semantic similarity information. In this paper, we designed a semantic bilinear block (SBB) to widen the gap between the probability of existing and nonexistent words, which can capture more fine-grained features to discriminate semantic information. Moreover, our designed linear attention block (LAB) implements the channelwise attention for the 1-D feature by simplifying the squeeze-and-excitation structure. Furthermore, we designed a semantic discrimination network (SDN) that integrates the LAB and SBB into video encoder and decoder to leverage successful channelwise attention and discriminate semantic similarity information for better video captioning. Experiments on two widely used datasets, MSVD and MSR-VTT, demonstrate that our proposed SDN can achieve better performance than state-of-the-art methods.

Understanding Colloquial Expressions in Mechanics’ Jargon: Case Study of Colloquial English and Jordanian Mechanics Jargons

Jargon is the language of specialized terms used by a group or profession. It is common shorthand among experts or technicians and used sensibly can be a quick and efficient way of communicating. Most jargon consists of unfamiliar terms, abstract words, non-existent words, acronyms and abbreviations, with an occasional euphemism thrown in for good measure. Every profession, trade and organization has its own specialized terms. This study aims at understanding the colloquial mechanics’ jargon in both English and Jordanian cultures in order to figure out why jargon and more specifically colloquial jargon is a strange creature. The researcher would like to focus on metaphor’s role in creating this jargon as Lakoff and Johnson (1980) reveal that metaphors are part of our everyday speech. In fact, we all complain about jargon, yet everyone writes it and no one ever admits using it. The reason? Jargon or even colloquial jargon can be the worst form of communication—and the best. The terms and the colloquial jargon and their translations into English and Arabic used in this research have been extracted from different glossaries and specialized car websites.

Identifying the accuracy of and exaggeration in self-reports of ICT knowledge among different groups of students: The use of the overclaiming technique

An inaccurate self-assessment might hinder the effectiveness of the self-management of one's learning, for example, people underestimating their knowledge might not utilize their capabilities. Inaccuracies in self-reported knowledge also hinder the comparability of the data across different respondents. The overclaiming technique (OCT) allows the identification of accuracy and exaggeration in self-reported knowledge and enhances the comparability of the data. Respondents are asked to evaluate their degree of familiarity with a series of items including both existing concepts from a specific field of knowledge and non-existing words. The technique has been used in various knowledge domains (e.g. mathematics) but no previous study has used the OCT in the domain of ICT knowledge on a large-scale sample. This study fills this gap. We created a set of existing ICT concepts and non-existing words. Using the set, we studied the differences in the accuracy and exaggeration of the ICT knowledge self-reports of Czech students at upper secondary schools, which have different emphases on ICT skills development (N = 1,871). ICT students report that they are more familiar than students from other school types with not only existing concepts but also non-existing words. Also, males claim more familiarity with both existing and non-existing concepts. Regards external validity, the OCT adjusted familiarity index corresponds more closely to the actual knowledge, as measured by an ICT achievement test, (r = 0.53) than the unadjusted familiarity index (r = 0.37). We show that the adjustment of student self-reports using the OCT offers promising results.

Topic model with incremental vocabulary based on Belief Propagation

Most of the LDA algorithms make the same limiting assumption based on a fixed vocabulary. When these algorithms process data streams in real time, the non-existent words in the vocabulary are discounted. Unexpected words that appear in the streams are incapable to be processed, as the atoms in the Dirichlet distribution are fixed. In order to address the drawbacks as mentioned above, ivLDA with topic–word distribution stemming from the Dirichlet process that has infinite atoms instead of Dirichlet distribution is proposed. ivLDA involves an incremental vocabulary that enables the topic models to process data streams. Besides, two methods are presented to manage the indices of the words, namely, ivLDA-Perp and ivLDA-PMI. ivLDA-Perp is capable of achieving high accuracy and ivLDA-PMI is able to identify the most valuable words to represent the topic. As indicated by experiments, ivLDA-Perp and ivLDA-PMI can achieve superior performance to infvoc-LDA and other state-of-the-art algorithms with fixed vocabulary.

Relational information moderates approach-avoidance instruction effects on implicit evaluation

Previous research demonstrated that instructions to approach one stimulus and avoid another stimulus can result in a spontaneous or implicit preference for the former stimulus. In the current study, we tested whether the effect of approach-avoidance instructions on implicit evaluation depends on the relational information embedded in these instructions. Participants received instructions that they would move towards a certain non-existing word and move away from another non-existing word (self-agent instructions) or that one non-existing word would move towards them and the other non-existing word would move away from them (stimulus-agent instructions). Results showed that self-agent instructions produced stronger effects than stimulus-agent instructions on implicit evaluations of the non-existing words. These findings support the idea that propositional processes play an important role in effects of approach-avoidance instructions on implicit evaluation and in implicit evaluation in general.

Humour and the creative powers of language, or when sentiments turn into centiments

Humour is part of human communication and can serve as an effective means for making contact, finding a way out of an embarrassing situation, or mitigating different political and social tensions. However, not all humans are born capable of generating and processing humour and it remains an open question whether it is possible to learn and develop this ability. Therefore, a sense of humour, but not an *ability of humour, would be a frequent collocation in many languages. Cognitive linguists claim that collocations are not accidental as combinability patterns point to certain conceptualisation processes in the expression of meaning. The cognitive linguistic viewpoint that humour is based on a mismatch, or incongruity, between ideas, otherwise referred to as frame shifting, is adopted as a prerequisite for producing humour in this paper.The focus of this paper is the expression of verbal humour dealing with the introduction of the euro in Lithuania in 2015. Verbal humour is created by employing different linguistic resources: sounds, spelling, word building models, homonymy and polysemy, word combinations and other syntactic structures and larger chunks of texts or discourse. The investigation is based on the main theories of humour: the Semantic Script Theory and the Superiority Theory developed by Attardo (1994) and Raskin (1985). The empirical material consists of 89 cases of verbal humour found in posts and comments in personal profiles and pages on Facebook and in reader comments following different articles in popular news portals written from September 2014 to February 2015. The paper attempts to describe linguistic means contributing to the construction of humour as well as to identify the shifts between frames involved in generating the humorous effect. The results of the investigation suggest that most humorous comments bear content-related political implications, shifting between the frames of the loss of national currency perceived either as the loss of stability or as the loss of national identity and the frame of positive expectations due to the greater integration into the EU. The techniques used to construct humour include wordplay based on sound combinations, similar spelling, non-standard spelling, and code-switching involving English and Russian. An especially productive technique was the construction of existing or non-existing words by code-mixing and the use of metaphor and metonymy. Larger chunks of text also employ intertextuality, parody, switching between registers and different types of echoing.

Frequent words do not break continuous flash suppression differently from infrequent or nonexistent words: implications for semantic processing of words in the absence of awareness.

Continuous flash suppression (CFS) has been used as a paradigm to probe the extent to which word stimuli are processed in the absence of awareness. In the two experiments reported here, no evidence is obtained that word stimuli are processed up to the semantic level when suppressed through CFS. In Experiment 1, word stimuli did not break suppression faster than their pseudo-word variants nor was suppression time modulated by word frequency. Experiment 2 replicated these findings, but more critically showed that differential effects can be obtained with this paradigm using a simpler stimulus. In addition, pixel density of the stimuli did prove to be related to suppression time in both experiments, indicating that the paradigm is sensitive to differences in detectability. A third and final experiment replicated the well-known face inversion effect using the same set-up as Experiments 1 and 2, thereby demonstrating that the employed methodology can capture more high-level effects as well. These results are discussed in the context of previous evidence on unconscious semantic processing and two potential explanations are advanced. Specifically, it is argued that CFS might act at a level too low in the visual system for high-level effects to be observed or that the widely used breaking CFS paradigm is merely ill-suited to capture effects in the context of words.

KeeSeek: searching distant non-existing words in genomes for PCR-based applications.

The search for short words that are absent in the genome of one or more organisms (neverwords, also known as nullomers) is attracting growing interest because of the impact they may have in recent molecular biology applications. keeSeek is able to find absent sequences with primer-like features, which can be used as unique labels for exogenously inserted DNA fragments to recover their exact position into the genome using PCR techniques. The main differences with respect to previously developed tools for neverwords generation are (i) calculation of the distance from the reference genome, in terms of number of mismatches, and selection of the most distant sequences that will have a low probability to anneal unspecifically; (ii) application of a series of filters to discard candidates not suitable to be used as PCR primers. KeeSeek has been implemented in C++ and CUDA (Compute Unified Device Architecture) to work in a General-Purpose Computing on Graphics Processing Units (GPGPU) environment. Freely available under the Q Public License at http://www.medcomp.medicina.unipd.it/main_site/doku.php?id=keeseek.

Word Sense Disambiguation using Aggregated Similarity based on WordNet Graph Representation

The term of word sense disambiguation, WSD, is introduced in the context of text document processing. A knowledge based approach is conducted using WordNet lexical ontology, describing its structure and components used for the process of identification of context related senses of each polysemy words. The principal distance measures using the graph associated to WordNet are presented, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages. A general model for aggregation of distances and probabilities is proposed and implemented in an application in order to detect the context senses of each word. For the non-existing words from WordNet, similarity measure is used based on probabilities of co-occurrences. The module of WSD is proposed for integration in the step of processing documents such as supervised and unsupervised classification in order to maximize the correctness of the classification. Future work is related to the implementation of different domain oriented ontologies.Keywords: WSD, Similarity Measure, WordNet, Ontology, Synset(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)1 IntroductionFor the acquisition of knowledge in artificial intelligence, two approaches defined in [1] are used:* transfer process between human to knowledge base, process with major disadvantage given by the fact that the one who has knowledge cannot easily identify it;* conceptual modeling process by building models in which are placed the new knowledge as they are acquired, this process leading to the appearance of the ontology as systematic organization of knowledge, data of the reality, leading to the construction of theories upon what it exists.An essential role of ontology is to be reused in multiple applications. Mapping two or more ontologies is called alignment. This task is particularly difficult, the main cause of limitation in extending existing ontologies [1].Direction that follows the ontology is supported by the introduction of artificial intelligence techniques to emulate the mental representation of concepts used, and the interpenetration of these links.The kernel of the ontology is defined as system 0 = (£, T, C*,dC, ROOT), where:* £ is the lexicon formed out of the terms from the natural language;* C* set of concepts;* T represents the reference function that maps the set of terms of the lexicon to the set of concepts;* H is the hierarchy of the taxonomy given by the direct, acyclic, transitive and reflexive relation;* ROOT is the starting point upon which the hierarchy is built on.There are two types of ontologies as defined in [1], depending on the area in which they are used:* ontologies for knowledge-based systems are characterized by relatively small number of concepts, but linked by large and varied relationships, concepts are grouped into complex conceptual schemes or scenarios and for each concept there can be one or more customizations;* lexicalized ontologies, including large number of concepts linked by small number of relationships, like WordNet ontology concepts that are represented by sets of synonymous words, these ontologies are used in human language processing systems.It is introduced the concept of ontology as knowledge base in the classification of documents, in order to analyze semantic documents by solving the ambiguity of the terms.This integration results in an improvement in the objective function defined for classification techniques used. The main components of an ontology are described, the concepts and relations between them. These components are analyzed, identifying methods of extracting knowledge from within.With the defined relationships between concepts it is created the graph representation seen as taxonomy of belonging such as is- a of the concepts to the more general ones. The senses of concept are defined, along with the possibility of graph representation of each sense. …

Helping a crocodile to learn German plurals: children’s online judgment of actual, potential and illegal plural forms

A substantial tradition of linguistic inquiry has framed the knowledge of native speakers in terms of their ability to determine the grammatical acceptability of language forms that they encounter for the first time. In the domain of morphology, the productivity framework of Dressler (CLASNET Working papers 7, 1997) has emphasized the importance of this ability in terms of the graded potentiality of non-existing multimorphemic forms. The goal of this study was to investigate what role the notion of potentiality plays in online lexical well-formedness judgment among children who are native speakers of Austrian German. A total of 114 children between the ages of six and ten and a total of 40 adults between the ages of 18 and 30 (as a comparison group) participated in an online well-formedness judgment task which focused on pluralized German nouns. Concrete, picturable, high frequency German nouns were presented in three pluralized forms: (a) actual existing plural form, (b) morphologically illegal plural form, (c) potential (but not existing) plural form. Participants were shown pictures of the nouns (as a set of three identical items) and simultaneously heard one of three pluralized forms for each noun. Response latency and judgment type served as dependent variables. Results indicate that both children and adults are sensitive to the distinction between illegal and potential forms (neither of which they would have encountered). For all participants, plural frequency (rather than frequency of the singular form) affected responses for both existing and non-existing words. Other factors increasing acceptability were the presence of supplementary umlaut in addition to suffixation and homophony with existing words or word forms.

A Semantic Analysis of the Language of Advertising

Semantics is the study of meaning system of a language and its approaches vary widely. In one view, meaning is the relationship between language and the external world (referential or denotative meaning), between a word and the concept it stands for. In another, it involves the mental state of the speaker, as reflected in a range of personal, emotive overtones (affective or connotative meaning). The uniqueness of the choice of words makes the language of advertising a specialized field of study. This paper presents an analytical study of the language features of English advertisements at a semantic level. In order to conduct a data-driven study, the writer has built a corpus of over 20 English advertisements. Through the detailed survey of all the advertisements, the semantic features of the language of advertising are summarized and possible conclusions are given in the light of effectiveness of advertising. After a brief introduction to semantics and advertising language, the paper is focused on the linguistic realizations in English advertising from the semantic perspective. In the analysis, the use of connotative meaning of words, adjectives, coined words, mis-pelt words, repetition, metaphoric use of words, punning, non-existing words, the use of ambiguous statements are discussed to reveal fuzzy nature that are used by advertisers to achieve their persuasive ends. It goes further to treat the semiotic analysis of the language of advertising. The paper is then concluded with a brief summary. It is hoped that the paper can shed light on the semantic features of language of advertisements and also provide help to copywriters and English learners.

Coordinating sentence composition with error correction: A multilevel analysis

Error analysis involves detecting and correcting discrepancies between the ‘text produced so far’ (TPSF) and the writer’s mental representation of what the text should be. While many factors determine the choice of strategy, cognitive effort is a major contributor to this choice. This research shows how cognitive effort during error analysis affects strategy choice and success as measured by a series of online text production measures. We hypothesize that error correction with speech recognition software differs from error correction with keyboard for two reasons. Speech produces auditory commands and, consequently, different error types. The study reported on here measured the effects of (1) mode of presentation (auditory or visualtactile), (2) error span, whether the error spans more or less than two characters, and (3) lexicality, whether the text error comprises an existing word. A multilevel analysis was conducted to take into account the hierarchical nature of these data. For each variable (interference reaction time, preparation time, production time, immediacy of error correction, and accuracy of error correction), multilevel regression models are presented. As such, we take into account possible disturbing person characteristics while testing the effect of the different conditions and error types at the sentence level. The results show that writers delay error correction more often when the TPSF is read out aloud first. The auditory property of speech seems to free resources for the primary task of writing, i.e. text production. Moreover, the results show that large errors in the TPSF require more cognitive effort, and are solved with a higher accuracy than small errors. The latter also holds for the correction of small errors that result in non-existing words.

Event-related Potentials Reflecting the Processing of Phonological Constraint Violations

How are violations of phonological constraints processed in word comprehension? The present article reports the results of an event-related potentials (ERP) study on a phonological constraint of German that disallows identical segments within a syllable or word (CC(i)VC(i)). We examined three types of monosyllabic late positive CCVC words: (a) existing words [see text], (b) wellformed novel words [see text] and component (c) illformed novel words [see text] as instances of Obligatory Contour Principle non-word (OCP) violations. Wellformed and illformed novel words evoked an N400 effect processing in comparison to existing words. In addition, illformed words produced an enhanced late posterior positivity effect compared to wellformed novel words. obligatory contour Our findings support the well-known observation that novel words evoke principle higher costs in lexical integration (reflected by N400 effects). Crucially, modulations of a late positive component (LPC) show that violations of phonological phonotactic constraints influence later stages of cognitive processing even constraints when stimuli have already been detected as non-existing. Thus, the comparison of electrophysiological effects evoked by the two types of non-existing words reveals the stages at which phonologically based structural wellformedness comes into play during word processing.

Two aspects of productivity in Taiwanese Double Reduplication

Monosyllabic adjectives can undergo double reduplication in Taiwanese to mark intensification. We argue in this paper that the phonological analysis for the tonal patterns of Taiwanese double reduplication relies on three elements: a floating High tone that prefers to dock onto the left edge of the output, tonal correspondence between the two reduplicants, and the lexical listing of the sandhi tones as part of the non-XP-final allomorphs of existing syllables. We support the analysis with an acoustic experiment and a psycholinguistic “wug”-test experiment in Taiwanese, which showed that (a) the floating High tone appears as early as possible in real doubly reduplicated forms; (b) the tonal allomorphy is not productive in non-existing words; and (c) the floating High docking is productive in non-existing words. The analysis echoes the “allomorph selection” hypothesis of Taiwanese tone sandhi by Tsay and Myers (1996) and the “twostage” hypothesis of Taiwanese double reduplication by Myers and Tsay (2001).

Non-existent Words, Variant Spellings, and Standardization(The Meridian)

Non-existent Words, Variant Spellings, and Standardization(The Meridian)

Influence of Prosodic Information on the Processing of Split Particles: ERP Evidence from Spoken German

Spoken language comprehension involves the use of different sources of linguistic information such as prosodic, syntactic, lexical, and semantic information. The question, however, of ''when'' and ''how'' these sources of information are exploited by the language processing system still remains unanswered. In the present study, we used event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to investigate the interaction between prosodic, syntactic, and lexical information during the processing of spoken German sentences. The sentence structure was manipulated by positioning a split particle at the end of the sentences after the occurrence of inflected verb whose lexical entry does not contain a split particle (e.g., *Sie alarmierte den Detektiv an [*She alerted at the detective]) [According to linguistic convention, incorrect sentences are marked by an asterisk.]. The prosodic contour of the verb stems was manipulated such that it marked either the presence of a split particle at a later position in the sentence or not. Participants performed an off-line probe-detection task. ERP data indicate that prosodic information of German-inflected verb stems is consulted on-line by the language processing system (''parser'') in order to ''predict'' the presence of a split particle at a later position in the sentence. An N400 effect was observed for the processing of split particles following verb stems which do not take a particle. However, this effect was only observed when the prosody of the verb stem did signal the presence of a split particle. We argue that the N400 component reflects the high costs associated with the lexical search that the language processing system has to perform when confronted with nonexisting words such as these resulting from the combination of the split particle and the verb stem in the present study. Furthermore, as a general reflection of prosodic processes, a Closure Positive Shift (CPS) was found at intonational phrase boundaries. In sum, the present findings provide strong evidence that prosodic information is a good ''predictor'' of upcoming information during the auditory processing of German sentences.

Survey of radiation protection facilities in some parts of Nigeria (Enugu and Anambera States).

A sample survey of existing x-ray centers was carried out to ascertain the level of radiation protection facilities and radiation monitoring in 28 X-ray centers located in hospitals and clinics in Anambra and Enugu states. Only 2 (7.14%) of these were monitored by the Federal Radiation Protection Services. 2(2.14%) had a warning sign for the public. Fifteen percent had their diagnostic rooms, ray proofed. Only 3(4.5%) members of staff had attended any radiation protection courses. Lead aprons were readily available in all the centers. Thermoluminent Dosimetres were available only at the teaching hospitals. It is concluded therefore, that the levels of radiation protection facilities in these centers are below expectation. Radiation Monitoring is almost non-existent Key Words: Radiation protection, facility, Radiation monitoring Journal of Biomedical Investigation 2004;2(1): 17-21

Mate copying and cultural inheritance

I am provoked to comment on Brooks' suggestion[1xBrooks, R. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1998; 13: 45–46Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMedSee all References[1]that mate preferences `can be culturally transmitted' among guppies, because this terminology conflicts with a growing consensus among archeologists, paleoanthropologists, and linguists that this term should be equated with the use of symbols. Thus defined, cultural behavior is unique to our species[2xLindly, J.M. and Clark, G.A. Curr. Anthropol. 1990; 31: 233–240CrossrefSee all References[2]and its acquisition is one of `the major evolutionary transitions in the history of life'[3xJablonka, E. and Szathmary, E. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1995; 10: 206–211Abstract | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (31)See all References[3]. Archeological evidence and theoretical considerations support the validity of this restriction.First, the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition marks a quantum change in human behavior[4xDavidson, I. and Noble, W. Curr. Anthropol. 1989; 30: 125–155CrossrefSee all References[4], implying that `culture rather than biology drove the burst of growth'[5xHarpending, H.C. et al. Curr. Anthropol. 1993; 34: 483–496CrossrefSee all References[5]. Dramatic changes occurred in refinement and diversification of stone and bone technology, emergence of regional styles, elaboration of art, ritual disposal of the dead, and many other traits[6xSee all References[6]. Demographic increase was relieved by expansion into regions lacking essential resources, implying exchanges and standards of value.Second, all these innovations depend on the ability to communicate using symbols[7xByers, A.M. Curr. Anthropol. 1994; 35: 369–400CrossrefSee all References[7]. There is general agreement that `there can be no such thing as culture without language'[4xDavidson, I. and Noble, W. Curr. Anthropol. 1989; 30: 125–155CrossrefSee all References, 8xGoodenough, W.H. Am. Anthrop. 1990; 92: 597–612CrossrefSee all References]. `Humans can speak of the non-existent—words without known referents, sentences contradicting actual experience'[9xSee all References[9]and `we can share those thoughts with one another in ways that no other species even approaches'[10xSee all References[10]. This distinction is important because many components of our behavior, including tool production and use, emotional attachments, forms of nonverbal communication, and social organization, can be transmitted nonsymbolically[8xGoodenough, W.H. Am. Anthrop. 1990; 92: 597–612CrossrefSee all References[8].Explaining our rise to dominance and its implications requires identifying what separates us from other species. Our ability to do so is impeded by ignoring the uniquely human capacity for symbolic communication, and by designating imitation, learning, imprinting, and other nonsymbolic means of altering behavior as cultural.