non-EU Member Countries Research Articles

Financial development and environmental degradation: insights from European countries

ABSTRACT We investigate the relationship between financial development and environmental quality during 1996–2019 in a panel analysis of 40 European countries, of which 28 EU and 12 non-EU member countries. We built four empirical models to check the connection between financial development and environmental degradation while controlling for GDP growth, trade openness, FDI, and energy consumption. We applied the Dynamic Common Correlated Effects (DCCE) estimator because of cross-sectional dependence (CSD) among the panel cross-sections. Our findings report a positive association between financial development and environmental degradation for the entire panel of European countries. The subsequent analysis of sub-groups shows that this is particularly the case for non-EU member countries and countries with a high level of financial development. Furthermore, there is a bidirectional causality between financial development, energy consumption or trade openness, and environmental degradation in European countries.

Origin Region Wealth Effect and Inbound Tourism to Europe

Despite the role of wealth in modeling the propensity to consume luxurious goods and services, the literature has so far neglected the role of wealth as inferred from the stock market in modeling tourism inflow. Using 43 European countries over the period 1994???2019, we demonstrate that demand-side wealth effect as inferred from the Morgan Stanley Capital International (MSCI) indexes is an important determinant of inbound tourism. We find that a good financial mood extrapolated from the bullish wealth effect positively influences the inflow of tourists to Europe. The effect of the relationship between external wealth effect and inbound tourism is higher for non-EU member countries and countries in Eastern Europe. Lastly, we find that the wealth effect in the US was an important factor in predicting inbound tourism during the global financial crisis.

IMPACT OF INVESTMENTS ON FOOD SECURITY ACCESS: CASE OF EU AND NON-EU MEMBER COUNTRIES

Agriculture around the world faces a number of challenges. The aim of this paper is to investigate the impact of gross investments and agriculture investments on the level of food security in the member countries of the European Union (EU) and non-EU member countries. In the paper as a method of research hierarchical regression analysis was used. The results of the research showed that there is a statistically significant influence of gross investments and agriculture investments on the level of food security in the EU and non-EU member countries. The largest amount of gross investments and investments in agriculture was recorded in Croatia and Slovenia, as a EU members countries, which have the highest level of food security. On the other hand, the lowest volume of gross investments and investments in agriculture was recorded in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as non-EU member country, which has the lower level of food security.

Policy Transfer Framework in the Environmental Governance of Non-EU and EU Member Countries: A Comparative Analysis of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia

This study offers a comprehensive examination of environmental governance within the European Union (EU), focusing on the comparative experiences of Bosnia and Herzegovina (a non-EU member) and Croatia (an EU member). The research uses policy transfer theory to investigate the practicality and effectiveness of EU-led environmental initiatives when implemented at state and local levels. The study reveals a disconnect between these initiatives and their execution, with corruption and fragile political arrangements identified as significant barriers to environmental protection. The research further underscores the complex nature of EU-driven environmental governance policies and the impact of post-war political agreements and transitional struggles on Bosnia and Herzegovina’s and Croatia’s governance structures. The methodology involves a detailed analysis of the legal frameworks, policies, and plans employed by the EU and the countries under study. The results highlight the importance of context and capacity in evaluating the effectiveness of environmental governance. The study contributes to understanding environmental governance in the EU context and provides insights into the challenges and opportunities for policy transfer to state-level governments.

Institutional trust and life satisfaction in selected Post-Soviet countries: The mediating role of 'perceived relative income'

This research investigates the impact of institutional trust on self-reported life satisfaction in the case of eight selected post-Soviet (non-EU member) countries. The study examines a potential explanation for the aforementioned impact and investigates the mediating role of perceived relative income for the relationship between institutional trust and life satisfaction. The sample contains a pool of country-level cross-sectional data (N=10410; n_female=5952, n_male=4458, 〖Mean〗_age=43.86) obtained from the World Values Survey (wave 6). The study applies mediation analysis to explore institutional trust's direct and indirect effects on individuals' life satisfaction. The validity of positive association is confirmed for pooled and country-level analyses. Simultaneously, mediation analyses provide evidence for the hypothesized indirect effect of institutional trust on life satisfaction through perceived relative income in the case of pooled data and five selected countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine). A significant mediation effect is not found in Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. Policy recommendations derived from the research suggest focusing on public policies and efficient communication tools to enhance institutional trust among citizens in conjuction with decreasing income inequality.

A Gravity Model Analysis of FDI across EU Member States

While recent debates about European integration focus mainly on the losses from dissolutions, a remarkable rise in foreign direct investment (FDI) in the accession countries has become increasingly evident as a benefit of the European Union (EU) membership, which makes EU membership a key FDI determinant.B y applying an augmented gravity model (rather than standard gravity variables), covering 39 host and home countries over 1991-2017, we investigated specific factors in explaining FDI inflows, with a focus on the new member EU states.E mpirically, we created a series of ordinary least squares and Poisson Pseudo-Maximum-Likelihood models to account for all country-time-specific and country-pair factors.T his paper verifies that EU membership has a positive and significant effect on FDI, between 1991 and 2017 FDI inflows became greater, on average, by approximately 23%.A fter EU enlargement, more FDI came from EU members to the new EU member countries and less came from non-EU member countries.

The Compliance and Dispute Settlement System of the European Energy Community

This article assesses the compliance, enforcement and dispute settlement procedure of the Energy Community (EnC). The EnC is an international organization composed of the European Union (EU) and several (South-)East European states, whose main goal is to integrate and harmonize the energy sector of the non-EU member countries with the energy sector of the EU by (among others) offering the prospects of easier access to foreign investments. This however requires implementation by those countries of the mandated rules as set by the EnC, which in practice are similar to the same rules and laws that are required within the EU itself. The implementation of these rules has been proven to be lacking, prompting active compliance enforcement by the Energy Community Secretariat, the permanent body tasked with monitoring compliance. For this, the EnC has a dispute settlement system which is highly diplomatic of nature, and which is most often already effective at enforcing compliance simply by negotiation. However, this dispute settlement system is still seen as lacking a few aspects, such as real sanctions, that would make it more effective at enforcing compliance of the rules of the EnC.

Perspectives of Ecological Footprint in European Context under the Impact of Information Society and Sustainable Development

The perspective of ecological footprint, which is a tool for measuring and monitoring the sustainability of the new information society and the higher degree of openness in the European economy powered by the globalization process, was approached from the viewpoint of accelerated technical, scientific, and innovative progress. This research aims at identifying and forecasting patterns of environmental footprint behavior in European countries, depending on factors reflecting the innovation activity, the degree of economic freedom, and EU membership status. In the article, three factors are identified that explain to a large extent the variation of the ecological footprint values: employment in foreign controlled enterprises, eco-innovation index, and region. The statistical and econometric methods used in the analysis are aimed at applying a Proportional-Odds Cumulative Logistic regression model in order to verify the existence of the association between the statistical variables and to forecast the likelihood of changing the ecological footprint from a lower to a higher score under the impact of selected factors by quantifying their influence. The results have led to the conclusion that, by applying the model, both the share of the employed population in the foreign-controlled enterprises and the eco-innovation index will have a significant direct influence on the variability in the ecological footprint (through the odds-ratio). Referring to the EU membership, the model shows that non-EU member countries or newer EU member countries are predominantly assigned low ecological footprint scores.

Personal Data Protection in New Zealand: Lessons for South Africa?

In 1995 the European Union adopted a Directive on data protection. Article 25 of this Directive compels all EU member countries to adopt data protection legislation and to prevent the transfer of personal data to non-EU member countries (“third countries”) that do not provide an adequate level of data protection. Article 25 results in the Directive having extra-territorial effect and exerting an influence in countries outside the EU. Like South Africa, New Zealand is a “third” country in terms of the EU Directive on data protection. New Zealand recognised the need for data protection and adopted a data protection Act over 15 years ago. The focus of this article is on the data protection provisions in New Zealand law with a view to establishing whether South Africa can learn any lessons from them. In general, it can be said that although New Zealand law does not expressly recognise a right to privacy, it has a data protection regime that functions well and that goes a long way to providing adequate data protection as required by the EU Directive on data protection. Nevertheless, the EU has not made a finding to that effect as yet. The New Zealand data protection act requires a couple of amendments before New Zealand might be adjudged ‘adequate’. South Africa’s protection of the right to privacy and identity is better developed and more extensive than that of New Zealand. Privacy is recognised and protected in the law of delict and by the South African Constitution. Despite South Africa’s apparently high regard for the individual’s right to privacy and identity and our well-developed common and constitutional law of privacy, South Africa does not meet the adequacy requirement of the EU Directive, because we do not have a data protection Act. This means that South African participants in the information technology arena are at a constant disadvantage. It is argued that South Africa should follow New Zealand’s example and adopt a data protection law as soon as possible.

UKRAINIAN LABOUR MIGRATION AND REMITTANCES IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

1. Introduction International migration has become one of the most discussed and analysed topics of the 20th century. Military turmoil, political orientation and general economic climate have all impacted its nature and brought about new waves and streams of migration while increasing the public interest in this topic. Mass inflows and outflows of migrants have shaped labour markets and performance of policies. Therefore, researchers started studying potential determinants of migration and impacts of the migration on the source and destination countries that would also contribute to developing regulatory measures and international legal framework of this phenomenon. Since the 1950s, the situation in the Europe has been significantly influenced by the introduction of Four freedoms and the development of the European Integration process that has brought freedom of movement of people and workers and series of employment opportunities not only to the European Union (EU) States but also to non-EU member countries. Within Europe, the East-West stream of migration belongs to the second largest stream of the world after Latin America (sometimes Mexico)-US stream. A number of European countries play an important role in this concept as transition and destination countries for both intra-EU and international migration flows. Ukraine has a unique position in this system. It is the country simultaneously sending and receiving migrants but also the transition country on the migration way to the EU. Also, proximity to the EU borders has made Ukraine an attractive country for the study of socio-economic impacts of migration. An interest in migration aspects has been noted among researches who strived to determine the majority of economic factors and implications for all participants. The key factor of empirical study has become data, their analysis and phenomenon observed. Remittances are one of the consequences accompanying migration that can be easily interpreted as quantitative measure. Remittance as money transfers are one of the most important channels of the wealth distribution influencing countries on both sides. The socio-economic effects and determinants can be analysed from macro and microeconomic perspective. The result of such analysis often depends on the reliability of data source and explanatory power. The advantage of macroeconomic data originating from the international institutions such as IMF, Eurostat or the World Bank is their availability. On the other side, those highly aggregated datasets derive remittance from balance of payments which captures only a formal form of remittances. The majority of remittances sent to the source country are transferred via formal and informal channels. In view of the high number of illegal or undocumented migrants, official statistics usually underestimate volume of both migration and remittances (the fact that has been acknowledged also by IMF). An alternative approach that allows capturing all channels of transfer is microeconomic research conducted on individual basis. Although listing all related publications would take up several pages of this paper, some relevant ones, e.g. Massey et al. (1997), Massey et al. (2002), Massey (2004), Donato et al. (2005), or Durand and Massey (2010) can be used as examples of this type of research on the study of migration behaviour in Mexico and Latin America (Mexican Migration Project (MMP) and Latin American Migration Project (LAMP)). Douglas Massey and his colleagues provided methodology with aspirations to capture global migration flows. 2 2. Literature review In recent decades the scope of interest in migration topic has changed in many ways in methodology, topic and results. Unlike the researchers in the 1970s and their specific approach, has been an expansion of the area of interest and a shift from rural-urban migration to global migration flow models with the stress on mutual connection to development (Clemens et al. …

New Perspectives on Contractual Law in the Context of Real Contracts in the Systems of International Contemporary (Roman) Law

This scientific paper aims at exploring and establishing whether national legal gaps or possible issues within the differences in the international contractual law of the European Union’s member countries and non-EU member countries can result in possible difficulties. In case there are legal problems and difficulties or practical concerns in this field, should the functioning of the internal trade and legal function through its interpretation hinder the process between the contracting parties in the event of entering a contract of international and interstate character within the law of obligations, and in cases of entering a contract, during its interpretation, while determining the rights and obligations or during other legal issues which have to do with the implementation of international private law and European international private law. Viewed from this angle, we need to consider the national and international private contractual law in the aspect of harmonization of the contractual law which may result in inconsistencies on a European level and broader. This would present an obstacle which restricts the fundamental legal-private rights of citizens as an advantage of individuals. They consist of three parts: personal relations between citizens, property relations between persons entitled as property trustees, as well as the procedural law which regulates the protection of subjective rights of personal and ownership nature. In practice, these face more difficulties in the private international law and European private international law, for example in: rules on property, ownership, real rights on other people’s belongings, liabilities and heritage in international character and elements.

New Perspectives on Contractual Law in the Context of Real Contracts in the Systems of International Contemporary (Roman) Law

This scientific paper aims at exploring and establishing whether national legal gaps or possible issues within the differences in the international contractual law of the European Union’s member countries and non-EU member countries can result in possible difficulties. In case there are legal problems and difficulties or practical concerns in this field, should the functioning of the internal trade and legal function through its interpretation hinder the process between the contracting parties in the event of entering a contract of international and interstate character within the law of obligations, and in cases of entering a contract, during its interpretation, while determining the rights and obligations or during other legal issues which have to do with the implementation of international private law and European international private law. Viewed from this angle, we need to consider the national and international private contractual law in the aspect of harmonization of the contractual law which may result in inconsistencies on a European level and broader. This would present an obstacle which restricts the fundamental legal-private rights of citizens as an advantage of individuals. They consist of three parts: personal relations between citizens, property relations between persons entitled as property trustees, as well as the procedural law which regulates the protection of subjective rights of personal and ownership nature. In practice, these face more difficulties in the private international law and European private international law, for example in: rules on property, ownership, real rights on other people’s belongings, liabilities and heritage in international character and elements.

Current status and future perspectives of Italian finfish aquaculture

Currently available data show that shellfish and finfish production in Italy, derived both from fisheries and aquaculture activities, is on the order of 474,000 tons, each activity representing 50 % of the total amount. In this context, the finfish aquaculture industry contributes on average 31 % to the national aquaculture production and on average 59 % of its value, giving a total amount of 72,000 tons and a value of around 351 million € (2010). According to FEAP statistics, Italy is the fourth largest finfish producer in EU27, after the UK, Greece, and Spain, while it is also one of the six largest finfish producers among the non-EU and EU member countries, together with Norway, UK, Greece, Turkey, and Spain. Presently, fish culture activities are mainly focused on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, 55.5 %), followed by European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, 13.6 %), gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata, 12.2 %), gray mullet (Mugil cephalus, 5.3 %), sturgeon (Acipenser spp., 2 %), and European eel (Anguilla anguilla, 1.7 %). Over the last 20 years, freshwater fish production and aquaculture (trout, carp, and eel) have decreased in Italy, with the exception of sturgeon. In contrast, marine fish production has significantly increased during the same period, and the two leading species, European sea bass and gilthead sea bream, presently contribute 25.8 % of the finfish production. From 1,900 tons in 1990, production reached 19,000 tons in 2010, with a 900 % increase, at an average percentage of 4.5 %. In addition, new marine fish species were successfully cultured over the same period. This review outlines the past and present situation of finfish culture in Italy and discusses future developments and priorities, with particular emphasis on new, emerging aquaculture species.

EU정부의 R&D지원 제안서평가 프로세스모형에 관한 연구

EU는 세계에서 미국을 능가하는 경제력을 가지기 위해서 여러 가지 측면으로 노력하고 있다. 이러한 경제성장은 산업기술발전을 통해서 가능하고 또한 이것은 산업기술의 경쟁력을 통한 고용창출 등이 가능하다고 인지하고 있다. 이에 EU집행위에서는 R&D 능력을 상승시키기 위해서 여러 가지 지원정책을 펼치고 있다. 비 EU회원국인 우리나라 R&D 관여자 들에게는 지원정책에 대한 제안서 평가절치를 알아보는 것은 중요하다. 본 논문에서는 EU집행위가 실행하는 EU R&D지원정책 중 제안서 평가방안을 알아보는데 연구의 목적을 두었다. 본 논문을 통해서 살펴본 EU의 제안서 평가방안은 먼저 전문가브리핑, 제안서에 대한 개별평가, 컨센서스, 그리고 패널평가로 이어진다. 또한 EU R&D 제안서 평가의 특징은 사전에 전문가들로 구성되어있고, 패널평가를 통해서 마무리되는 것이라고 할수 있다. 즉 중요한 EU R&D 제안서는 전문가들이 결정한다고 할 수 있다. 우리나라 정부에서는 우리나라 전문가들이 제출하는 제안서들이 보다 성공적으로 체택 될 수 있게 EU에서의 제안서 평가단계에서 활용되는 평가전문가를 발굴 관리할 필요가 있다. 【The EU in order to surpass the United States in the world economy have tried several aspects. Economic growth is possible through the technological competitiveness of this industry, and also through the development of industrial technology and employment. Such EU Commission has taken several support policies in order to raise the R & D capabilities. Non-EU member countries, Korea, R & D pipe central incisor see support for the policy proposal evaluation for women is important. The aim of this paper is to analyze the proposal evaluation process of the EU commission for R&D projects. I argue that the EU's methode of proposal evaluation for EU R&D consists of five stages: expert briefings, proposals for individual assessment, consensus and finally a panel evaluation. The main features of the EU's R&D evaluation process for proposals are experts and panel evaluation. The Korean government could select, operate and manage experts for the EU's R&D evaluation. That would lead to a higher rate of success for Korean proposals in the EU.】

Gender-equality as boundary: ‘Gender–nation frames’ in Norwegian EU campaign organizations

This article examines how women’s and gender-equality issues form part of social movement organizations’ ideological framing and discusses how this tendency is mirrored in discourses at European and nation-state levels. Focusing on one of Western Europe’s few non-EU member countries, the article compares how two Norwegian social movement organizations draw on gender issues in their argumentation. The analysis is empirically based on written material produced by the organizations and takes recourse in a feminist methodological approach rooted in the tradition of discourse analysis. The analysis suggests that gender-related issues discussed by the organizations are coloured by an implicit North–South hierarchy which frames some areas, nations and cultures as more gender-equal and women-friendly than others. By drawing on notions conceptualized by Nira Yuval-Davis, it is argued that social movement organizations’ tendency to frame women’s issues and gender-equality in a way that implicitly marks and maintains symbolic boundaries between North and South is coloured by a ‘politics of belonging’ at the macro-level. The final discussion suggests some of the ways in which it may be problematic to see Nordic gender-equality traditions and current EU initiatives as universal solutions that fit all women living in Europe.

Personal Data Protection in New Zealand: Lessons for South Africa?

In 1995 the European Union adopted a Directive on data protection. Article 25 of this Directive compels all EU member countries to adopt data protection legislation and to prevent the transfer of personal data to non-EU member countries (\'third countries\') that do not provide an adequate level of data protection. Article 25 results in the Directive having extra-territorial effect and exerting an influence in countries outside the EU. Like South Africa, New Zealand is a \'third\' country in terms of the EU Directive on data protection. New Zealand recognised the need for data protection and adopted a data protection Act over 15 years ago. The focus of this article is on the data protection provisions in New Zealand law with a view to establishing whether South Africa can learn any lessons from them. In general, it can be said that although New Zealand law does not expressly recognise a right to privacy, it has a data protection regime that functions well and that goes a long way to providing adequate data protection as required by the EU Directive on data protection. Nevertheless, the EU has not made a finding to that effect as yet. The New Zealand data protection act requires a couple of amendments before New Zealand might be adjudged ‘adequate'. South Africa's protection of the right to privacy and identity is better developed and more extensive than that of New Zealand. Privacy is recognised and protected in the law of delict and by the South African Constitution. Despite South Africa's apparently high regard for the individual's right to privacy and identity and our well-developed common and constitutional law of privacy, South Africa does not meet the adequacy requirement of the EU Directive, because we do not have a data protection Act. This means that South African participants in the information technology arena are at a constant disadvantage. It is argued that South Africa should follow New Zealand's example and adopt a data protection law as soon as possible. PER/PELJ Vol. 4 2008: pp. 61-109

An Analysis on the Inward FDI Policy of Ireland

Through the 5th and the 6th enlargements, the EU became the largest single market in the world with the total population of 457 millions and the total GDP of €9755.4 billions as of January 1 2004. This means that the EU becomes one of the most attractive markets in the world. However there is another face of the EU market which we have to consider. The EU has strengthened the degree of its economic integration since 1957 and already reached to the stage of ‘full economic integration’ which is understood as the most protective measure for non-EU member countries To pioneer very attractive but very protective EU market, FDI is certainly one of the best available ways for non-EU member states. In particular, the EU market is very important for the countries which heavily rely on external economic relations. Korea is also a country heavily relying on external economic relations. Among the EU member countries, Ireland is one of the countries which draw the largest amount of FDI. In this study, I analyzed why Ireland has been able to draw such a huge amount of inward FDI. It was found that the main factors which Ireland used in order to draw the FDI were its very effective policies toward inward FDI and its inherited investment-related factors such as cheap, good quality and young labor forces.