non-English Speaking Background Research Articles

Reliability of the Abbreviated Westmead Post-traumatic Amnesia Scale in children: Impact of age on test results.

This study aimed to determine the reliability of the Abbreviated Westmead Post-traumatic Amnesia Scale (A-WPTAS) in children by examining the impact of age on A-WPTAS performance. Participants were typically developing patients with minor illnesses or injuries and/or accompanying siblings aged 5-10 years, attending a children's hospital ED. Exclusion criteria included: (i) a recent traumatic brain injury; (ii) developmental disability; (iii) recent drug administration judged to impact cognition; and/or (iv) non-English speaking background. The A-WPTAS was administered on two occasions separated by approximately 60 min. Logistic regression was used to determine the odds of passing based on age. A total of 125 children completed the A-WPTAS assessments. A-WPTAS pass rates were 36% for 5 year olds, 68% for 6 year olds, and exceeded 90% for 7-10 year olds. Compared with 9 year olds, 5 year olds had significantly lower odds of passing (P = 0.003), a trend that persisted for 6 year olds (P = 0.052). Among 5 and 6 year olds, failure was predominantly due to difficulty with temporo-spatial orientation items. The A-WPTAS is reliable for use in children aged 7 years and older, while its use in children aged 6 years and under results in an unsatisfactory high false positive rate, limiting its clinical utility. The adult-level performance of children aged 7 years onwards provides strong support for using the tool in the early management of these children with mild traumatic brain injury in Australian EDs.

Prevalence and associations of general practice nurses' involvement in consultations of general practitioner registrars: a cross-sectional analysis.

To establish prevalence and associations of general practice nurses' (GPNs) involvement in general practitioner (GP) registrars' consultations. A cross-sectional analysis from an ongoing cohort study of registrars' clinical consultations in five Australian states. Registrars recorded detailed data from 60 consecutive consultations per 6-month training term. Problems and diagnoses encountered, including chronic disease classification, were coded using the International Classification of Primary Care, second edition duplication system (ICPC-2plus) classification system. The outcome factor in our analysis was GPN involvement in management of individual problems and diagnoses. Independent variables were a range of patient, registrar, practice, consultation and educational factors. We analysed 108 759 consultations of 856 registrars including 169 307 problems or diagnoses. Of the problems/diagnoses, 5.1% (95% confidence interval (CI) 5.0-5.2) involved a GPN. Follow-up with a GPN was organised for 1.5% (95% CI 1.4-1.5) of all problems/diagnoses. Significant associations of GPN involvement included patient age, male sex, Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander status, non-English-speaking background (NESB) and the patient being new to the practice. Larger practice size, the particular training organisation, and the problem/diagnosis being new and not a chronic disease were other associations. Associations with Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander status and NESB status suggest GPNs are addressing healthcare needs of these under-serviced groups. But GPNs may be underutilised in chronic disease care.

A Tap on the Shoulder: The Disciplinary Techniques and Logics of Anti-Pokie Apps

A Tap on the Shoulder: The Disciplinary Techniques and Logics of Anti-Pokie Apps

Assessment of current practice and barriers to antimicrobial prophylaxis in peritoneal dialysis patients.

Existing Australasian and international guidelines outline antibiotic and antifungal measures to prevent the development of treatment-related infection in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. Practice patterns and rates of PD-related infection vary widely across renal units in Australia and New Zealand and are known to vary significantly from guideline recommendations, resulting in PD technique survival rates that are lower than those achieved in many other countries. The aim of this study was to determine if there is an association between current practice and PD-related infection outcomes and to identify the barriers and enablers to good clinical practice. This is a multicentre network study involving eight PD units in Australia and New Zealand, with a focus on adherence to guideline recommendations on antimicrobial prophylaxis in PD patients. Current practice was established by asking the PD unit heads to respond to a short survey about practice/protocols/policies and a 'process map' was constructed following a face-to-face interview with the primary PD nurse at each unit. The perceived barriers/enablers to adherence to the relevant guideline recommendations were obtained from the completion of 'cause and effect' diagrams by the nephrologist and PD nurse at each unit. Data on PD-related infections were obtained for the period 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2011. Perceived barriers that may result in reduced adherence to guideline recommendations included lack of knowledge, procedural lapses, lack of a centralized patient database, patients with non-English speaking background, professional concern about antibiotic resistance, medication cost and the inability of nephrologists and infectious diseases staff to reach consensus on unit protocols. The definitions of PD-related infections used by some units varied from those recommended by the International Society for Peritoneal Dialysis, particularly with exit-site infection (ESI). Wide variations were observed in the rates of ESI (0.06-0.53 episodes per patient-year) and peritonitis (0.31-0.86 episodes per patient-year). Despite the existence of strongly evidence-based guideline recommendations, there was wide variation in adherence to these recommendations between PD units which might contribute to PD-related infection rates, which varied widely between units. Although individual patient characteristics may account for some of this variability, inconsistencies in the processes of care to prevent infection in PD patients also play a role.

Subjective reasons why immigrant patients attend the emergency department.

BackgroundSome patients visit a hospital’s emergency department (ED) for reasons other than an urgent medical condition. There is evidence that this practice may differ among patients from different backgrounds. The objective of this study was to examine the reasons why patients from a non-English speaking background (NESB) and patients with an English speaking background but not born in Australia (ESB-NBA) visit the ED, as compared to patients from English-speaking backgrounds but born in Australia (ESB-BA).MethodsA cross-sectional survey was conducted at the ED of a tertiary hospital in metropolitan Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Over a four-month period patients who were assigned an Australasian Triage Scale score of 3, 4 or 5 were surveyed. Pearson chi-square test and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the differences between the ESB and NESB patients’ reported reasons for attending the ED.ResultsA total of 828 patients participated in this study. Compared to ESB-BA patients NESB patients were less likely to consider contacting a general practitioner (GP) before attending the ED (Odds Ratios (OR) 0.6 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.4–0.8, p < .05) While ESB-NBA were more likely to consider contacting a GP 1.7 (1.1–2.5, p < .05). Both the NESB patients and the ESB-NBA patients were far more likely than ESB-BA patients to report that they had visited the ED either because they do not have a GP (OR 7.9, 95% CI 4.7–13.4, p < .001) and 2.2 (95% CI 1.1–4.4, p < .05) respectively and less likely to think that the ED could deal with their problem better than a GP (OR 0.5 (95% CI 0.3–0.8, p < .05) and 0.7 (0.3–0.9, p < .05) respectively. The NESB patients also thought it would take too long to make an appointment to consult a GP (OR 6.2, 95% CI 3.7–10.4, p < 0.001).ConclusionsNESB patients were the least likely to consider contacting a GP before attending hospital EDs. Educational interventions may help direct NESB people to the appropriate health services and therefore reduce the burden on tertiary hospitals ED.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12873-015-0031-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Maternity services are not meeting the needs of immigrant women of non-English speaking background: Results of two consecutive Australian population based studies

Backgroundwomen of non-English speaking background who migrate by choice or seek refuge in developed countries such as Australia have notably poorer perinatal outcomes than local-born women. Using data collected in two consecutive population-based surveys conducted in 2000 and 2008, the objective of this paper is to compare the views and experiences of immigrant women of non-English speaking background (NESB) giving birth in Victoria, Australia with those of women who were born in Australia. Methodsconsecutive population-based surveys of women giving birth in Victoria, Australia conducted in 2000 and 2008. Questionnaires were distributed to women giving birth in a two-week period in 2000 and a four-week period in 2008 by hospitals and home birth practitioners. Surveys were mailed to women at five to six months post partum. Findingscompleted surveys were received from 67% of eligible women in 2000 (1616/2412), and 51.2% in 2008 (2900/5667). Compared to Australian-born women, immigrant women of NESB were more likely to report negative experiences of antenatal, intrapartum and postnatal care. In 2008, 47.1% of immigrant women expressed dissatisfaction antenatal care compared with 26.8% of Australian born women (Adj OR 2.17, 95% CI 1.7–2.7). Similarly, 40.5% of immigrant women were dissatisfied with intrapartum care compared with 25.5% of Australian born women (Adj OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.4–2.3), and 53.5% of immigrant women rated their postnatal care negatively compared with 41.0% of Australian born women (Adj OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.2–1.9). There was no evidence of improvement between the two surveys. Immigrant women were more likely than Australian-born women to say that health professionals did not always remember them between visits, make an effort to get to know the issues that were important to them, keep them informed about what was happening during labour or take their wishes into account. Conclusiondata from repeated population-based surveys of recent mothers provides one of the few avenues for gauging whether changes to the organisation of maternity services is making a difference to immigrant women׳s experiences of care. Our findings showing no change over an eight year period – during which there were major efforts to increase access to midwifery led models of care and provide greater continuity of caregiver – suggest that different approaches, more specifically tailored to the needs of immigrant families are needed to enhance women׳s experiences of care and improve outcomes.

Migrants, Refugees, and Mobility: How Useful Are Information Communication Technologies in the First Phase of Resettlement?

The rate at which people move and resettle around the world is unprecedented. Mobility and resettlement is now greatly assisted by the use of inexpensive internet communication technologies (ICTs) for a wide variety of functions: to communicate locally and across territories, for localised information seeking, geo – locational mapping and for forging new social connections in host countries and cities. This article is based on a qualitative study of newly arrived migrants and mobile people from non English speaking backgrounds (NESB) to the city of Brisbane, Australia and investigates how the internet is used to assist the initial period of settling into the city. As increasing amounts of essential information is placed online, the study asks how people from NESB communities manage to negotiate the types of information they require during the early stages of resettlement, given varying levels of access to ICTs, digital and language literacy. The study finds that the internet is widely used for specific location information seeking (such as accommodation and job-seeking), but this is often supplemented with other non-mediated sources of information. The study identified implications for social policy in regard to the resourcing and access of information. While findings are specific to the study location, it is feasible that the patterns of internet use for resettlement have relevance in a broader context.

‘Makes Me Feel More Aussie’: Ethnic Identity and Vocative Mate in Australia

A ‘quintessentially Australian’ feature of English, vocative mate has been said to carry a special connection with Australian identity and culture. However, precisely how this can be measured is yet to be established. This paper analyses the reported use of vocative mate by Australians of a Non-English Speaking Background (NESB) and its relation to self-perceived ethnic identity. Data collected from 101 participants demonstrate that overall, usage patterns for NESB Australians are similar to those reported for Australians from an English-speaking background, with males claiming to use the term more overall, but females claiming to use it with a wider range of addressees (and thus, appearing to move away from the traditional masculine and Anglo-Australian associations of mate). The present study also reveals that use of vocative mate correlates with perceived ethnic orientation as determined by an ‘Ethnic Orientation Questionnaire’. A positive correlation was found between orientation towards ethnic heritage and a lesser use of vocative mate, suggesting that, for these speakers, use of mate is related to affiliation with Australian society, or as one participant put it, ‘gives a sense of an Australian identity despite skin colour’.

Academic experiences of international PhD students in Australian higher education: From an EAP program to a PhD program

For the last few decades, Australia has played a pivotal role in the supply of quality education to international students and other educational industries associated with them. In the higher education sector, in particular, international PhD student numbers continue to increase. However, the limited availability of resources for the students and the lack of investigation concerning the students indicate that there is a need for both higher education providers and other related stakeholders to understand and take into account the difficulties and challenges of international PhD students and their implications in the Australian academic context. While learning a new academic culture in a new country, international PhD students meet situations where they have to deal with a range of language problems, cultural differences and personal matters. The study reported in this article explores international non-English speaking background (NESB) students' experiences with university preparation programs and PhD programs and investigates the issues they face at an Australian university with a focus on factors affecting the NESB students' academic experiences. It provides implications for the teaching of postgraduate preparation programs and the supervision of international NESB PhD students at Australian universities.

Development of an electronic role-play assessment initiative in bioscience for nursing students

Devising authentic assessments for subjects with large enrolments is a challenge. This study describes an electronic role-play assessment for approximately 600 first-year nursing students to learn and apply pathophysiology (bioscience) concepts to nursing practice. Students used Microsoft Office PowerPoint® to prepare electronic role-plays both between a nurse and patient, and between two nurses, thus simulating workplace scenarios. Student feedback demonstrated that respondents found this assessment useful for learning pathophysiology, and for applying pathophysiology to a nursing clinical setting. This electronic presentation circumvented issues associated with a traditional oral presentation such as embarrassment and logistics of scheduling groups, and rated well with students of non-English speaking background. The electronic role-play assessment initiative encouraged students to apply their bioscience knowledge to a clinical setting, and allowed students to conceptualise the importance of bioscience within both the nursing degree and the profession.

Does the student evaluation of teaching instrument really measure instructors’ teaching effectiveness? An econometric analysis of students’ perceptions in economics courses

While the student evaluation of teaching (SET) has been an intensely researched area in higher education there has been little research using the individual student responses on their perceptions of instructors’ effectiveness (TEVAL) score. This research delivers a methodological breakthrough as it fills this gap by employing individual student responses from an elite Australian university and partial proportional odds model to investigate the influence of students’ perceptions of instructional attributes included in the SET instrument and other variables on TEVAL score. The findings indicate clear presentation and explanation, and well-organized classes were key determinants of TEVAL scores. Emphasis on thinking rather than memorizing was less influential. Intermediate level courses and non-English speaking background instructors received lower ratings. Elective courses and instructors below associate professor attracted higher ratings. SET instrument currently used fails to provide a valid measure of teaching quality as it does little to measure the extent of students’ actual learning. This paper underscores the need to incorporate variables typifying diversity of student population including academic performance, discipline destination, ethno-linguistic background, age, sex, indicators of students’ effort. It raises broader implications such as sub-scales, inclusion of items on course contents, intellectual challenge, real world applications, and problem-solving skills.

Satisfaction with emergency department service among non‐English‐speaking background patients

The present study aims to investigate non-English-speaking background (NESB) patients' satisfaction with hospital ED service and compare it with that of English-speaking background (ESB) patients. A cross-sectional survey was conducted at the ED of an adult tertiary referral hospital in Queensland, Australia. Patients assigned an Australasian Triage Scale score of 3, 4 or 5 were surveyed in the ED, before and after their ED service. Pearson χ(2) -test and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the differences between the ESB and NESB groups in terms of patient-reported satisfaction. In total, 828 patients participated in the present study. Although the overall satisfaction with the service was high - 95.1% (ESB) and 90.5% (NESB) - the NESB patients who did not use an interpreter were less satisfied with their ED service than the ESB patients (odds ratio 0.5, 95% confidence interval 0.3-0.8, P = 0.013). The promptness of service received the lowest satisfaction rates (ESB 85.4% [82.4-88.0], NESB 74.5% [68.5-79.7], P < 0.001), whereas courtesy and friendliness received the highest satisfaction rates (ESB 98.8 [97.6-99.4], NESB 97.0 [93.9-98.5], P = 0.063). All participants reported the promptness of service (33.5%), quality and professional care (18.5%) and communication (17.6%) as the most important elements of ED service. The NESB patients were significantly less satisfied than the ESB patients with the ED service. Use of an interpreter improved the NESB patients' level of satisfaction. Further research is required to examine what NESB patients' expectations of ED service are.

Practice effects in medical school entrance testing with the undergraduate medicine and health sciences admission test (UMAT)

BackgroundThe UMAT is widely used for selection into undergraduate medical and dental courses in Australia and New Zealand (NZ). It tests aptitudes thought to be especially relevant to medical studies and consists of 3 sections – logical reasoning and problem solving (UMAT-1), understanding people (UMAT-2) and non-verbal reasoning (UMAT-3). A substantial proportion of all candidates re-sit the UMAT. Re-sitting raises the issue as to what might be the precise magnitude and determinants of any practice effects on the UMAT and their implications for equity in subsequent selection processes.MethodsBetween 2000 and 2012, 158,909 UMAT assessments were completed. From these, 135,833 cases were identified where a candidate had sat once or more during that period with 117,505 cases (86.5%) having sat once, 14,739 having sat twice (10.9%), 2,752 thrice (2%) and 837, 4 or more times (0.6%). Subsequent analyses determined predictors of multiple re-sits as well as the magnitude and socio-demographic determinants of any practice effects.ResultsIncreased likelihood of re-sitting the UMAT twice or more was predicted by being male, of younger age, being from a non-English language speaking background and being from NZ and for Australian candidates, being urban rather than rurally based. For those who sat at least twice, the total UMAT score between a first and second attempt improved by 10.7 ± 0.2 percentiles, UMAT-1 by 8.3 ± 0.2 percentiles, UMAT-2 by 8.3 ± 0.2 percentiles and UMAT-3 by 7.7 ± 0.2 percentiles. An increase in total UMAT percentile score on re-testing was predicted by a lower initial score and being a candidate from NZ rather than from Australia while a decrease was related to increased length of time since initially sitting the test, older age and non-English language background.ConclusionsRe-sitting the UMAT augments performance in each of its components together with the total UMAT percentile score. Whether this increase represents just an improvement in performance or an improvement in understanding of the variables and therefore competence needs to be further defined. If only the former, then practice effects may be introducing inequity in student selection for medical or dental schools in Australia or NZ.

Risk factors associated with trajectories of mothers’ depressive symptoms across the early parenting period: an Australian population-based longitudinal study

Approximately 14% of women experience depressive symptoms in the first postnatal year. Few studies have examined the persistence of symptoms beyond this time. This study aims to (a) assess the course of women's depressive symptoms from the first postnatal year to when their children were aged 6-7years, (b) identify distinct groups of women defined by their symptom trajectories over time, and (c) identify antenatal and early postnatal risk factors associated with persistent symptoms. Data from 4,879 women participating in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children were analysed using latent growth modelling and logistic regression to identify risk factors associated with class membership. For the overall sample, depressive symptoms were highest during the first postnatal year and then gradually decreased over 6-7years. Two distinct classes were identified with the majority of women (84%) reporting minimal symptoms over time, and 16% experiencing persistently high symptoms. Risk factors were younger maternal age, being from a non-English speaking background, not completing high school, having a past history of depression, antidepressant use during pregnancy, child development problems, lower parenting self-efficacy, poor relationship quality, and stressful life events. This research identifies risk factors that may predispose mothers to enduring depressive symptoms, offering opportunities for early identification and targeted early intervention.

The impact of glucose disorders on cognition and brain volumes in the elderly: the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study

Type 2 diabetes predicts accelerated cognitive decline and brain atrophy. We hypothesized that impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and incident glucose disorders have detrimental effects on global cognition and brain volume. We further hypothesized that metabolic and inflammatory derangements accompanying hyperglycaemia contribute to change in brain structure and function. This was a longitudinal study of a community-dwelling elderly cohort with neuropsychological testing (n = 880) and brain volumes by magnetic resonance imaging (n = 312) measured at baseline and 2 years. Primary outcomes were global cognition and total brain volume. Secondary outcomes were cognitive domains (processing speed, memory, language, visuospatial and executive function) and brain volumes (hippocampal, parahippocampal, precuneus and frontal lobe). Participants were categorised as normal, impaired fasting glucose at both assessments (stable IFG), baseline diabetes or incident glucose disorders (incident diabetes or IFG at 2 years). Measures included inflammatory cytokines and oxidative metabolites. Covariates were age, sex, education, non-English speaking background, smoking, blood pressure, lipid-lowering or antihypertensive medications, mood score, apolipoprotein E genotype and baseline cognition or brain volume. Participants with incident glucose disorders had greater decline in global cognition and visuospatial function compared to normal, similar to that observed in baseline diabetes. Homocysteine was independently associated with the observed effect of diabetes on executive function. Apolipoprotein E genotype did not influence the observed effects of diabetes on cognition. Incident glucose disorders and diabetes were also associated with greater 2-year decline in total brain volume, compared to normal (40.0 ± 4.2 vs. 46.7 ± 5.7mm(3) vs. 18.1 ± 6.2, respectively, p < 0.005). Stable IFG did not show greater decline in global cognition or brain volumes compared to normal. Incident glucose disorders, like diabetes, are associated with accelerated decline in global cognition and brain volumes in non-demented elderly, whereas stable IFG is not. Preventing deterioration in glucose metabolism in the elderly may help preserve brain structure and function.

The barriers and facilitators people with diabetes from a nonEnglish speaking background experience when managing their medications: a qualitative study

To explore the barriers to and facilitators of effective medication management from the perspectives of people with diabetes from a nonEnglishspeaking background, carers and health professionals. The barriers that people with diabetes experience managing their medications can adversely impact on health outcomes. People from nonEnglishspeaking backgrounds are at risk of medication-related problems, although there is a paucity of research in this area. A qualitative research design using a purposive sampling approach. People with type 1 or type 2 diabetes from a nonEnglish speaking background, their carers, and health professionals who assisted these people and their carers to manage their medications were recruited from the diabetes outpatient clinic at an adult teaching public hospital in Melbourne, Australia. Participants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using a thematic framework method. Eleven people with diabetes, 10 carers and 10 health professionals were interviewed, and four key issues were identified: diabetes knowledge, diabetes impact, medication knowledge and medication management. The cost of medications, language barriers that hinder communication, forgetfulness, and poor knowledge and understanding emerged as barriers to effective medication management. Facilitators included the use of dose administration aids to manage medications, but current medication lists were not used. Findings revealed people with diabetes experienced a multitude of barriers when managing their medications, and, despite the problems people experienced, there appeared to be poor use of support aids to assist people to effectively manage their medications. The findings can be used to develop strategies aiming at improving how people from nonEnglishspeaking backgrounds manage their medicines.

Changing models of public antenatal care in Australia: Is current practice meeting the needs of vulnerable populations?

Objectiveto investigate women's views and experiences of public antenatal care. Designpopulation-based survey in two states. SettingSouth Australia and Victoria, Australia. Participants4366 women surveyed at 5–6 months post partum. Findingsof 8468 eligible women mailed the survey, 52% returned completed questionnaires. Fifty-seven per cent of women (2496/4339) received public antenatal care. Of these, half attended a GP for some/all antenatal visits, 38% attended a public hospital clinic or midwives clinic, and 12% had primary midwife care, mostly in a midwifery group practice. Women with complex needs – young women, those experiencing multiple social health problems, women of non-English speaking background, and women at higher risk of complications in pregnancy – were the least likely to say that care met their needs. Women attending a GP or midwife as a primary caregiver were the most positive about their antenatal care: 69% and 74% respectively describing their antenatal care as ‘very good’. Women attending a standard public hospital clinic were the least positive about their antenatal care with only 48% rating their care as ‘very good’. Women enroling in GP shared care or attending a midwives clinic at a public hospital gave intermediate ratings. Conclusion and implications for practiceModels of public antenatal care involving a designated lead primary caregiver (GP or midwife) came closest to meeting women's need for information, individualised care and support.

Sources of information used by women during pregnancy to meet their information needs

Aim of the studyto explore the information sources used by women during pregnancy to meet their information needs regarding pregnancy, birth and the postpartum period. Designa cross-sectional postal survey of all eligible women who birthed at the Royal Women's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia between November 2010 and January 2011. Surveys were sent at four months post partum. Findingsforty-seven per cent (350/752) of eligible women returned the surveys, of whom 62% were primiparous. ‘Discussion with a midwife’ was the source of information used by the greatest number of women during pregnancy (246/350, 70%). Less than half of the women used the internet to access information (154/350, 44%), and group information sessions were the least preferred information format (8/330, 2.4%). Women from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) were less likely to use written and online resources. One-third of the women had unmet learning needs, particularly in relation to breast feeding and postnatal recovery. Overall, women rated books as the most useful source of information (57/332, 17.2%). The model of pregnancy care influenced the source women rated as most useful. Women who received most of their pregnancy care from a midwife described discussion with a midwife as their most useful source of information (42/150, 28%). In contrast, of the group who received most of their care from a doctor in antenatal clinic, the largest proportion reported that the internet was their most useful source of information (10/57, 28%). Conclusion and recommendationsdiscussion with midwives is an important source of information for women. The internet did not play a significant role in information seeking for more than half of the women in the study. Existing sources of information may not meet the needs of women from NESB, either because women do not access the multilingual resources currently available or because resources may only be provided in English or a few other common languages.

The Immigrant Wage Gap and Assimilation in Australia: Does Unobserved Heterogeneity Matter?

Immigrants to Australia are selected on observable characteristics. They may also differ from natives on unobservable characteristics such as ambition or motivation. If we account for unobservable differences, we find a wage gap for immigrant men from English‐speaking backgrounds, in contrast with previous research which has found no wage gap. Controlling for unobserved heterogeneity also seems important for finding cohort effects. Immigrants that arrived before 1985 faced a larger wage gap compared to native‐born Australians than subsequent cohorts. Confirming other research, we find wage gaps for immigrant men and women from non‐English‐speaking backgrounds (NESBs). Wage assimilation occurs slowly for all groups, but is slowest for those from NESBs.

Risk factors for children's receptive vocabulary development from four to eight years in the longitudinal study of Australian children.

Receptive vocabulary develops rapidly in early childhood and builds the foundation for language acquisition and literacy. Variation in receptive vocabulary ability is associated with variation in children's school achievement, and low receptive vocabulary ability is a risk factor for under-achievement at school. In this study, bivariate and multivariate growth curve modelling was used to estimate trajectories of receptive vocabulary development in relation to a wide range of candidate child, maternal and family level influences on receptive vocabulary development from 4–8 years. The study sample comprised 4332 children from the first nationally representative Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). Predictors were modeled as risk variables with the lowest level of risk as the reference category. In the multivariate model, risks for receptive vocabulary delay at 4 years, in order of magnitude, were: Maternal Non- English Speaking Background (NESB), low school readiness, child not read to at home, four or more siblings, low family income, low birthweight, low maternal education, maternal mental health distress, low maternal parenting consistency, and high child temperament reactivity. None of these risks were associated with a lower rate of growth from 4–8 years. Instead, maternal NESB, low school readiness and maternal mental health distress were associated with a higher rate of growth, although not sufficient to close the receptive vocabulary gap for children with and without these risks at 8 years. Socio-economic area disadvantage, was not a risk for low receptive vocabulary ability at 4 years but was the only risk associated with a lower rate of growth in receptive vocabulary ability. At 8 years, the gap between children with and without socio-economic area disadvantage was equivalent to eight months of receptive vocabulary growth. These results are consistent with other studies that have shown that social gradients in children's developmental outcomes increase over time.