Non-electric Applications Research Articles

Geo thermal energy - Clean, safe and renewable - A review study

The rising demand of energy and exhausting sources of fossil fuels has compelled people all over the world towards a renewable, clean energy source i.e. geothermal energy. Geothermal resources are reservoirs of hot water that exist or are human made at varying temperatures and depths below the Earth’s surface. In side the great depths of the Earth, the temperature (1,250 °C) and pressure is sufficient to melt rock into magma which is termed as lava (750°C) once it comes out of the crust. This heat content is harnessed as geothermal energy and utilized for heat applications as well as generation of power. The majority of the world’s geothermal resources are located in the tropical Pacific Rim (Ring of Fire). The types of geothermal resources are categorized as convective hydrothermal systems; EGSs; conductive sedimentary systems; coproduction, with water from oil and gas fields; geopressure systems; and magma energy. Mostly, geothermal fluid can be used directly or indirectly depending on the enthalpy. High-temperature geothermal resources are primarily used for energy production, whereas low to medium ones are particularly equipped for non-electric applications. The extraction of geothermal energy from the grounds leads to a release of greenhouse gases like hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia etc. However, the amount of gas released is significantly lower than in the case of fossil fuels. Moreover, geothermal energy has proven its capacity to be a reliable, clean, and uninterrupted sustainable renewable energy.

Expert opinions on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of utilizing nuclear reactor waste heat for water desalination

Using waste heat generated by nuclear reactors for non-electric applications is vital for reducing environmental costs and thermal discharges. Waste heat is a significant portion of the reactor's overall energy and could reach up to two-thirds of the output power depending on the reactor design and efficiency. Despite the benefits of using waste heat, especially for essential applications like water desalination in areas with limited freshwater resources, the potential utilization is not yet applied. This study examines the strengths (S), weaknesses (W), opportunities (O), and threats (T) of using nuclear reactor waste heat for desalination in the Arabian Gulf region across four main areas: technical, environmental, socioeconomic, safety, and regulatory. The identified SWOT factors are combined with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to prioritize them based on input from relevant experts. The resulting integrated SWOT-AHP analysis identified global factor priorities and concluded with five consistent measures to support decision-makers in evaluating the feasibility of utilizing nuclear reactor waste heat for seawater desalination. Overall, the study revealed that regulation and relevant safety measures present the primary obstacle in this application, while enabling research and development was emphasized as the key factor to address these issues and increase confidence in decision-making.

Comparative analysis of associated cost of nuclear hydrogen production using IAEA hydrogen cost estimation program

The interest in non-electric applications of nuclear energy is rising ranging from hydrogen production, district heating, seawater desalination, and various industrial applications to provide long-term answers for a variety of energy issues that both present and future generations will confront. Hydrogen is a dynamic fuel that can be used across all industrial sectors to lower carbon intensity. This study, therefore, aims at estimating the cost of nuclear hydrogen production from some light water reactors using International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Hydrogen Calculator (HydCalc) program and comparing the result with similar existing studies conducted by other scholars using the Hydrogen Economic Evaluation Program (HEEP) program. The study employs six existing Light Water Reactors (LWRs) comprised of Korea Advanced Power Reactor 1400 MW electricity (APR1400), Russian VVER-1200, Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Plant in Ohio, Prairie Island NPP in Minnesota, Nine Mile Point NPP in New York, and Arizona Public Service's Palo Verde NPP to evaluate the Levelized cost of nuclear hydrogen production. Estimation of hydrogen demand was performed without carbon dioxide (CO2) tax since nuclear power has zero CO2 emission. The Levelized costs obtained using IAEA HydCalc and HEEP Programme were compared as follows; APR1400 cost are 2.6$/kg and 3.18$/kg, VVER1200 cost are 3.8$/kg and 3.44$/kg; Exelon cost are 1.7$/kg and 4.85$/kg; Davis Besse cost are 3.9$/kg and 3.09$/kg; Parlo Verde cost are 3.5$/kg and 4.77$/kg; Xcel Energy cost are 3.63$/kg and 0.69$/kg. The cost of hydrogen production using HEEP for Xcel Energy's Prairie Island NPP is 0.69 $/kg. This is because the reactor utilizes High Temperature Steam Electrolysis, method of hydrogen production, while the other methods employs Low Temperature Electrolysis. The results shows that the final price of the hydrogen for each reactor technology depends not only on the production method but also on the cost of the nuclear power plant and the production rate of the hydrogen plant.

Climate action for the shipping industry: Some perspectives on the role of nuclear power in maritime decarbonization

The shipping industry is a major enabler of globalization, trade, commerce and human welfare. But it is still heavily served by fossil fuels, which make it one of the foremost greenhouse gas emitting sectors operational today. It is also one of the hardest to abate segments of the transport industry. As part of the economy-wide climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts, it is necessary to consider a low carbon energy transition for this segment as well. This study examines the potential role of nuclear power and cogeneration towards greening this sector and identifies the associated techno-commercial and policy challenges associated with the transition. Quantitative estimates of the economics and investments associated with some of the possible routes are also presented. Alternatives such as nuclear-powered ships along commercial maritime trading routes, ships working on nuclear derived green hydrogen, ammonia or other sustainable power fuels will enable not only decarbonization of the shipping industry but also allow further diversification of the nuclear industry through non-electric applications of nuclear power and new sector coupling opportunities. In the run-up to the UNFCCCCOP28 meeting in 2023 in UAE, nuclear equipped nations heavily engaged in and dependent on maritime trade and commerce should definitely consider nuclear driven decarbonization of shipping and some of the options presented here as part of their climate action strategies.

The role of advanced nuclear reactors in non-electrical and strategic applications, producing sustainable energy supplies and reducing the greenhouse gasses

Abstract Nowadays, nuclear reactors became extremely fascinating not only for most of the nuclear communities but also for the prominent energy suppliers to fix the global warming effects worldwide. This paper presents a review of the last advances, applications, and challenges of nuclear reactors. Different types and classifications are introduced. Advantages and disadvantages are discussed for best decision-making. Next, nuclear safety is also discussed as the most important challenging subject to develop nuclear reactors worldwide. They are specially mentioned to find the key solution for the future of nuclear energy. A brief review of nuclear roadmaps is compared with other clean green technologies as well. Estimated prospects for projects timelines and progressions of new nuclear reactors are also presented and discussed briefly. Studies confirmed that nuclear reactors are not only required for developing non-electrical applications or even high-tech systems but also they are extremely profitable to restrict global warming effects. Finally, the solution is to enhance the markets of the nuclear reactors, especially the matured Gen III+ Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) to resolve short-term problems as well as advanced futuristic developing Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for the mid-term and long-term strategies. Moreover, research reactors especially advanced Multi-Purpose Research Reactors (MPRR) are necessary tools to develop both nuclear power plants and other advanced technologies as well as the modern Micro Modular Reactors.

Pre-Conceptual Design of the Research High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor TeResa for Non-Electrical Applications

In line with Polish national activities and research programs investigating non-electrical-reactor use, the national GOSPOSTRATEG-HTR project was launched, aiming at the development of a novel pre-conceptual design of a High-Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR). The 40 MWth research reactor would serve as a technology demonstrator for future industrial purposes. In the paper, the proposal of an established thermal-hydraulic and neutronic core design is presented as a result of the National Centre for Nuclear Research team studies, in the scope of the project, including the areas of fluid mechanics, heat exchange and reactor neutronic core design support analyses. The undertaken analyses were confirmed by the series of code investigations involving integral thermal-hydraulic (MELCOR (Sandia National Laboratories, USA), CATHARE (CEA, France)), neutronic (Serpent (VTT, Finland), MCB (AGH University’s Department of Nuclear Energy, Poland)), Computational Fluid Dynamics (ANSYS Fluent (ANSYS, USA)) and others. The calculations performed within the preliminary safety analysis on the pre-concept showed its compliance with international safety standards for the normal operation and Design Basis Accident sequences.

Mobile Nuclear-Hydrogen Synergy in NATO Operations

An uninterrupted chain of energy supplies is the core of every activity, without exception for the operations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. A robust and efficient energy supply is fundamental for the success of missions and a guarantee of soldier safety. However, organizing a battlefield energy supply chain is particularly challenging because the risks and threats are particularly high. Moreover, the energy supply chain is expected to be flexible according to mission needs and able to be moved quickly if necessary. In line with ongoing technological changes, the growing popularity of hydrogen is undeniable and has been noticed by NATO as well. Hydrogen is characterised by a much higher energy density per unit mass than other fuels, which means that hydrogen fuel can increase the range of military vehicles. Consequently, hydrogen could eliminate the need for risky refuelling stops during missions as well as the number of fatalities associated with fuel delivery in combat areas. Our research shows that a promising prospect lies in the mobile technologies based on hydrogen in combination with use of the nuclear microreactors. Nuclear microreactors are small enough to be easily transported to their destinations on heavy trucks. Depending on the design, nuclear microreactors can produce 1–20 MW of thermal energy that could be used directly as heat or converted to electric power or for non-electric applications such as hydrogen fuel production. The aim of the article is to identify a model of nuclear-hydrogen synergy for use in NATO operations. We identify opportunities and threats related to mobile energy generation with nuclear-hydrogen synergy in NATO operations. The research presented in this paper identifies the best method of producing hydrogen using a nuclear microreactor. A popular and environmentally “clean” solution is electrolysis due to the simplicity of the process. However, this is less efficient than chemical processes based on, for example, the sulphur-iodine cycle. The results of the research presented in this paper show which of the methods and which cycle is the most attractive for the production of hydrogen with the use of mini-reactors. The verification criteria include: the efficiency of the process, its complexity and the residues generated as a result of the process (waste)—all taking into account usage for military purposes.

Investigation of electrical treeing in perspex material

Perspex has been known for a long time as a polymeric material, and it has been used for a large number of electrical and non-electrical applications. The present work was carried out to investigates the ageing mechanism of perspex material under a high electric field. The electrical treeing phenomenon was studied using perspex samples with electrodes of a pin-to-plane configuration. The growth of an electrical tree in Perspex was measured and analysed with the aid of an advanced microscope, equipped with a high-resolution camera and connected to a personal computer. Several distinct stages were assigned to characterise the electrical tree development. The area occupied by the electrical tree channels was calculated using equal-area squares. This approach was employed to measure the growth rate of electrical trees under dry and wet conditions. The tree construction, shape and growth speed were studied and analysed to distinguish between treeing phenomenon under wet and dry conditions of fabricated perspex specimens. The absorption of water has increased the tree growth inside the samples, and ions with water have accelerated the breakdown process. The findings of this study are essential to improve the performance of perspex material, which is widely used in a variety of applications for both energy and non-energy purposes.

Hydrogen energy and large scale hydrogen production with nuclear power plants based on high-temperature reactors

At the present moment resource and ecological issues and challenges related to energy supply have become more acute. Key contradiction lies between constantly growing energy consumption and need for CO2 emission reduction. In the search of the solution hydrogen plays significant role as multi-purpose energy source and accumulator for transport, electric power, industry, distributed generation and public utility. It is expected that hydrogen energy development will benefit for the world’s energy system, environment and economy. Hydrogen may be used as pure fuel for transport and independent energy sources based on fuel elements. Global demand for hydrogen is expected to increase due to the growth of its consumption as a chemical agent in oil processing, petrochemical, chemical, metallurgic and other industries. In developed countries more than 80 % of hydrogen is derived from natural gas and petrochemicals. Large-scale hydrogen production is mainly accomplished by steam methane reforming. For natural gas saving and combustion products emission elimination steam methane reforming technology with heating from high-temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGR) is suggested. In 2018 hydrogen energy was declared as high priority area for scientific and technology development of Rosatom State Corporation. This area is integrated to the Comprehensive program project “Technology and scientific research development in nuclear energy of Russian Federation” and aims at design and demonstration of key technological solutions for nuclear hydrogen energy for large scale ecologic hydrogen production with heating from HTGR, hydrogen consumption infrastructure and integration of hydrogen energy into the economy. “Hydrogen energy” program implementation will diversify nuclear power non-electric applications.

Nuclear Energy: Non-Electric Applications

Nuclear energy is often viewed as linked exclusively to electrical power generation. However, the applications for nuclear energy are significantly greater than only electricity, and include cogeneration, district heating and cooling, high-temperature process heating, hydrogen and alternative fuel production, transportation and desalination. These additional applications expand the prospects for nuclear energy notably, and enhance the benefits that can be derived from it, such as reduced environmental impact and climate change mitigation. Interest in non-electric applications of nuclear energy is growing for environmental, economic, security and other reasons. In this paper, non-electric applications of nuclear energy are reviewed, including technological, environmental and economic issues of such applications as well as future prospects and benefits of non-electric applications of nuclear energy.

Comparative analysis of the investment attractiveness of nuclear power plant concepts based on small and medium sized reactor modules and a large nuclear reactor

It seems to be of current interest to consider and analyse possible electrical and non-electrical applications of small and medium sized reactors for both the nearest and more distant future. The paper presents the results of a comparative analysis of the economic attractiveness of nuclear power plant (NPP) designs based on small and medium-sized reactor modules and a large-sized reactor in order to identify conditions for increasing the investment attractiveness of NPP modular design concept. The analysis is based on the evaluation of such economic performance metrics as net present value, present value, internal rate of return, discounted payback period, and levelized cost. It was shown that, in terms of the present value and levelized costs, the NPP modular design concept is less economically attractive in comparison with the NPP design based on a large-sized reactor. In terms of the net present value, internal rate of return and payback period, the NPP modular design concept can be considered economically attractive if only the predicted learning effect is observed when the modules are constructed and the scale factor is not less than 0.5. In this case, it will be economically feasible to construct an NPP based on a small number of medium sized reactor modules. If the scale factor is not less than 0.6, one may talk about the economic attractiveness of NPP designs based on reactor modules of lower power. The impact of various debt financing schemes was analysed and it was demonstrated that, in relative terms, changes in the economic performance indicators are comparable in the implementation of the NPP modular design and a large sized reactor.

Characteristics of Silicone Composites for High Voltage Insulations

AbstractSilicone rubber (SiR) composites have been widely used for high voltage (HV) electrical and non-electrical applications for the last three decades. To increase the long-term performance of SiR composites under diverse environmental, mechanical and electrical stresses; detailed characterization and aging analysis is required. This review article presents a comprehensive survey on SiR composites that are used in HV applications. Particular emphasis is on silicon (Si) applications, chemistry, polymerization, silicone rubber properties enhancement by addition of fillers, composite materials, engineering requirements of polymer insulants, overview of high voltage (HV) electrical insulators and their aging. In addition, this review article includes appropriate discussions concerning the influence of fillers (micro/nano-sized) on the physical, thermal, mechanical and electrical properties of base polymer. Tensile strength, elongation at break, hardness, thermal degradation, dielectric strength, surface resistivity, volume resistivity, tracking/erosion resistance, partial discharge and water immersion resistance of SiR composites are analyzed. Finally, it was inferred that in order to diversify the SiR blends with micro/nano fillers and optimize their properties for particular applications further research work must be conducted.

Multistress Accelerated Aging and Tracking/Erosion-Resistance Investigation of High Voltage Polymeric Insulators

All over the world, room temperature-vulcanized silicone rubber has been widely used for outdoor electrical and non-electrical applications. However, in outdoor applications, the electrical and non-electrical properties of weather-sheds/sheaths of polymeric insulators were gradually degraded over time, which has become an unavoidable issue. In this work, we have presented the 5000-h multistress accelerated laboratory-aging and tracking/erosion-resistance analysis of alumina-tri-hydrate/silica-filled SiR composites, simulating actual field environment of Islamabad (Pakistan). In addition, to quantify the blends surface resistance to tracking and erosion, the inclined plane test was conducted according to ASTM-D2303 standard. To evaluate distinct properties, various stresses such as heat, ultraviolet radiation, salt fog, acid rain and humidity were sequentially applied over weathering period in a multistress accelerated aging chamber. Summer and winter weathering cycles were so designed as they occurred in the actual environment. Moreover, to investigate the physical and chemical changes as a function of time (0–5000 h), critical visual inspection, leakage current statistics, hydrophobicity, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and tracking/erosion analysis tests were conducted as planned. Compared to neat SiR sample, slight discoloration/roughness was exhibited by all other specimens. The hydrophobicity, leakage current and tracking/erosion results of SiR composites showed a strong correlation between surface condition and performance with respect to leakage current and applied voltage over the weathering period. Moreover, the FTIR results of all blends showed a considerable hydrocarbon (C–H) loss of chemical groups compared to virgin samples. Hence, it is suggested that multistress accelerated aging along with tracking/erosion analysis tests can be adopted to quantify and analyze the insulators behavior in real world.

Driving forces and obstacles to nuclear cogeneration in Europe: Lessons learnt from Finland

Nuclear power plants generate electricity and a large amount of waste heat which is valuable for cogeneration. District heating (DH) is a suitable technology to decarbonize the European heat sector. By contrast with most of nuclear non-electric applications, nuclear district heating (NDH) has already been implemented in Europe, thus providing us with some valuable empirical insights. This paper investigates the forces and obstacles to nuclear cogeneration by looking at the Loviisa 3 NDH project in Finland. The key forces are energy efficiency, decarbonization of the heat sector, operational competitiveness of future nuclear technologies, and synergies with renewable energies. The key obstacles are split incentives, electricity prices volatility, inexpediency of business models and regulatory frameworks, electioneering of local authorities and pessimist expectations with regards to project financing. Policy makers should recognize nuclear plants alongside other utilities generating large amounts of wasted heat. International cooperation programs involving both nuclear and heat stakeholders should be encouraged. EU28 Member States wanting to promote nuclear cogeneration may consider providing support for the electricity generated by high-efficiency plants.

TASS/SMR code improvement for small break LOCA applicability at an integral type reactor, SMART

Small reactors are a suitable option for nuclear system deployment in developing countries or non-electrical applications for various facilities. SMART is one of the small integral type reactors to apply flexibly local power demands or sea water desalination. A thermal hydraulic analysis code, TASS/SMR, having SMART specific models, was developed to simulate thermal hydraulic phenomena of the SMART plant. The improved TASS/SMR code predicts well the system behaviors under two-phase conditions compared with the OSU-MASLWR experimental results. A small break LOCA simulation of the SMART plant is improved a void distribution, a break flow, and a collapsed water level in the core.

Design and technology development for small modular reactors – Safety expectations, prospects and impediments of their deployment

The IAEA has seen a significant increase in participation of Member States and their expertise in the IAEA program for small and medium-sized reactors (SMRs) technology development. There are high-level of interest in SMR development and deployment in technology holders and technology user's countries. The trend in development has been towards design certification of small modular reactors, which are defined as advanced SMRs that produce electric power up to 300 MW(e), designed to be built in factories and shipped to utilities for installation as demand arises. The current driving forces of SMR development are, among others: fulfilling the need for flexible power generation for a wider range of users and applications; replacing the aging fossil-fired units; enhancing safety performance through inherent and passive safety features; offering better economic affordability; suitability for cogeneration and non-electric applications, options for remote areas and hybrid energy systems of nuclear with renewable. The majority of the near-term deployment advanced SMRs is the integrated pressurized water reactors (iPWR). Several countries are pioneering in the development and application of transportable nuclear power plants (TNPP), including floating and marine-based SMRs. The innovative features of advanced SMRs that converge into safer, reliable and affordable plant have been discussed. Multiple module plant distinct concepts of operations, licensing process, legal and regulatory framework are the main issues for the SMRs deployment and are delineated. For newcomer countries, however, one of the challenges is how to reconcile the competitiveness issue between advanced SMR designs and potential energy alternatives including large reactors with proven technology. The paper focuses on some impediments in the deployment of such novel designs that need to be resolved through testing and qualification of components and equipment, Research and Development (R&D), training and international collaboration.

Low radioactive and hybrid fusion – A path to clean energy

Aneutronic/low radioactive fuel is the way to clean and cheap energy of the future. An alternative scheme using compact toroids – field-reversed configuration or spheromak – may be applied for the reactor based on any magnetic confinement system. Even more, any fusion concept, including hybrid magneto-inertial fusion might use advantages of D–3He fuel. Advanced fuel, including helium-3 – based fusion plasma and alternative systems are reviewed. Different schemes of reactors, near-term technology and non-electric applications are discussed.

Status of the very high temperature reactor system

The purpose of this paper is to provide an update on the international effort in the development of the Very High Temperature Reactor system pursued through international collaboration in the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) and an outlook for further activities.The initial motivations to develop this reactor type are recalled, a historical overview is given about technology developments and test reactors since 1945 and several of the targeted non-electric applications of VHTR power are addressed.Cooperation in the frame of GIF is clearly beneficial for all project partners. Initially, a wealth of historical experience was collected and shared in the form of documents, dedicated workshops or fuel and material samples. This exchange included properties data, fabrication, irradiation and post-irradiation testing methods, quality assurance, design and analysis tools and methods, as well as the experience in building and operating related equipment. In the further course of the project execution, time, effort and scarce facilities (such as irradiation space or hot cell equipment) are shared, they accelerate progress and create synergies.Recent highlights from currently active GIF VHTR R&D projects (Materials, Fuel and Fuel Cycle, Hydrogen Production) are then provided and placed into the context of the GIF VHTR signatories' national programs. The majority of these currently focus on licensing requirements for demonstrators of near term process steam production scenarios while more aggressive, longer term and higher temperature applications are mainly pursued to enable thermochemical production of bulk hydrogen.Based on the VHTR's high technology readiness level, orientations for future R&D are outlined which would contribute to enhancing the system's market readiness level. These include work on System Integration and Assessment, Safety Analysis and Demonstration, Waste Minimization and Cost Reductions.The inherent safety characteristics of the VHTR are a precious asset for it to become a strong response to today's concerns of nuclear safety, energy security and climate change.

Feasibility study of high temperature reactor utilization in Czech Republic after 2025

High temperature reactors (HTRs) were examined as an option to intended future broadening of the nuclear energy production in Czech Republic. The known qualities as the inherent safety, high thermal utilization and non-electrical applications have been assessed in years 2009–2011 during the survey funded by Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade. The survey of high temperature reactors with spherical fuel was initiated by reason of mature state of the art of this technology type in South Africa and in China, where in both countries pilot plants were planned. Unfortunately, the global financial crisis caused the decision of stopping the governmental support in South African programme was made. In China, however, the development still continues. Czech Republic has almost 60 years nuclear research history and the knowledge of operation of gas cooled and heavy water moderated reactor has been gained in the past. Nevertheless, the design of light water reactors was more developed in former Soviet Union, which provided Czech scientists by initial knowledge base; hence the research has been reoriented to this technology. But, the demands on future nuclear reactors application are still growing and the same or even higher living standard of next generations have to be taken into consideration. Therefore the systems, which can produce more energy and less waste, are getting into foreground of interest of Czech decision makers. The high temperature reactor technology seems to be the successful representative of the GEN IV reactor types, which will be operated commercially in the near future. The broad spectrum of utilization enables this system to be an option after 2030, when the electricity demand is planned to be covered from about 50% by nuclear in our country.

Non-Electric Applications of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Concept

Electrical energy is not the only commercial product that can be produced by the fusion of light elements. The reaction products from many fusion fuels can be used to provide products that can be of a near-term benefit to society well before practical fusion power plants are a reality. The use of fusion products (neutrons and protons) in Homeland Security applications to detect clandestine materials or the production of short half life Positron Emission Tomography isotopes for medical diagnostics of abnormalities (e.g. cancers) in the human body are but a few of the near term examples of the near term use of fusion energy. This paper shows how one of the many ways to promote fusion, namely the use of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement concept, is uniquely suited to this task worldwide.