Non-edible Seeds Research Articles

Characterization of Oils and Solid Residues Obtained from <i>Bauhinia variegata L.</i> and <i>Pachira glabra pasq.</i> Seeds Through the Solvent Extraction Method

Vegetable oils derived from non-edible seeds are excellent sources for producing biodiesel which serves as an alternative to fossil fuels. In this study, products viz vegetable oils and solid residues obtained from solvent extraction method of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> seeds were characterized according to standard norms to evaluate their energy potential. The oils obtained have a free fatty acid content of 2.31 wt% and 13.6 wt%, a kinematic viscosity of 12.45 and 3.24 mm²/s, an iodine value of 17.26 and 12.37 (g of I<sub>2</sub>/100g of oil), a saponification value of 207.57 and 183.03 (mg of KOH/g of oil), a peroxide value of 10 and 8.06 (meq O<sub>2</sub>/kg of oil), and a calorific value of 40.66 and 65.08 MJ/kg, respectively. Furthermore, the physicochemical analysis of the oils revealed that they are excellent choice for biodiesel production. In addition, the proximate analysis of the solid residues of <i>Bauhinia variegata</i> and <i>Pachira glabra</i> showed high level of protein, fiber, and total carbohydrates with respective values of 34.79 and 30.41 wt%, 10.44 and 15.16 wt%, and 47.50 and 52.92 wt%. Mineral analysis indicated a high concentration of minerals, particularly potassium, sodium, calcium, and phosphorus. The solid residues exhibit anti-nutritional properties, making it suitable for various applications such as bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae, bioelectricity, biogas production, and biofuels among others.

Synthesis and Characterization of Biodiesel from Non-Edible Seed Oils Extracted from Cameroon Bioresources

This work aimed at valorizing non-edible seed oils from some plants found in Cameroon videlicet Acacia hockii (AH), Garcinia livingstonei (GL) and Moringa oleifera (MO), through production of biodiesel. Two extraction methods used were; the Soxhlet extraction and surfactant assisted extraction with sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) as surfactant. The extracted oils were characterized using physicochemical parameters. The characterized oils were used to synthesize biodiesels via acid and base catalyzed transesterification reactions. The purification of the biodiesels was done using chromatographic columns. The biodiesels obtained were also characterized using physicochemical analysis in a manner similar to the oils with additional parameters like cold f low properties, f lammability, ignition qualities and cetane number determinations. Qualitative analysis was realized using the Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectrophotometer (FT-IR). The Soxhlet extraction method gave higher yields for all the plants with MO being the highest, compared to the surfactant assisted extractions. The results from the physicochemical properties of the oils were as follows: specific gravity, 0.876 g/mL, 0.843 g/mL and 0.865 g/mL for AH, GL, and MO. The free fatty acid contents of the oils were 0.436% FFA, 0.547% FFA and 1.60% FFA for AH, GL, and MO respectively. The saponification values gave 143.03 mgKOH/g, 72.93 mgKOH/g, 126.22 mgKOH/g for AH, GL and MO in that order. Iodine values for the oils were 46.54 mgI2/g, 22.41 mgI2/g, 68.10 mgI2/g for AH, GL, and MO, respectively. The peroxide values gave 10.05 meq/kg, 8.50 meq/kg, 8.0 meq/kg for AH, GL, and MO, respectively. The kinematic viscosities were 21.0 mm2/s, 22.0 mm2/s and 43.0 mm2/s for AH, GL, and MO, respectively. The acid catalyzed reaction gave greater crude yields of 90.00% for all three plants while the base catalyzed reaction gave, 87.00% (AH), 84.00% (GL) and 74.00% (MO). The purified biodiesel samples had the following acid numbers: 0.028% FFA for BAH, 0.022% FFA for BGL, and 0.028% FFA for BMO. The kinematic viscosities values for biodiesel were 4.00 mm2/s, 4.23 mm2/s, and 5.22 mm2/s for BAH, BGL, and BMO, respectively. The cetane numbers of the synthesized biodiesel samples were 142.73 (BAH), 167.29 (BGL), and 82.40 (BMO). The IR spectra of the biodiesels corroborated the chemical make-up of biodiesel. Hence non-edible seed oils from the Cameroon rich bioresources can be valorized in biodiesel synthesis and other forms of green energy production in Cameroon and beyond.

Catalytic co-pyrolysis behaviour and kinetics study of waste lignocellulosic non-edible seeds and Covid-19 plastic over Al2O3 catalyst

The current research centred on estimating kinetic parameters and examining the composition of pyrolysis vapours from neem seeds and COVID-19 waste nitrile gloves (NG) using Pyro-GC–MS. Owing to the intricacy of the co-pyrolysis process, kinetic parameters were studied using KAS, OFW, FM, and VZ models. Biomass and plastic were mixed in different proportions (1:1, 3:1, and 5:1), whereas feed to catalyst was mixed at 3:1, 5:1 and 8:1, respectively. The estimation of the kinetic parameters of co-pyrolysis of NMS and NG confirmed that the 3:1 ratio and the feeds-to-catalyst ratio at 5:1 were found to be most effective in producing maximum hot vapours. Moreover, the analysis of pyrolysis vapours confirmed that a ratio of 3:1 for (NMS to NG) and a ratio of 5:1 for feed to catalyst (NMS + NG(3:1) + Al2O3 (5:1) resulted in the highest production of hydrocarbons while decreasing the presence of acids and oxygenated compounds.

Optimization of fuel modification parameters for effective and environmentally-friendly energy from plant waste biodiesel

Sustainable energy production from plant waste and non-edible seeds offers a promising pathway towards mitigating climate change, reducing environmental impact, promoting economic development, and enhancing energy security. Although several research works have focused on the conversion of Bauhinia seed waste to biooil as a sustainable energy, none of the studies attempted to improve its overall performance through fuel modification and parameter optimization. This study proposes a novel approach by blending water and 2-Ethylhexyl nitrate (2-EHN) into Bauhinia racemose biodiesel (BRD) to minimize emissions and enhance performance. The biodiesel properties were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The optimum levels of fuel modification parameters, such as BRD, water, and 2-EHN in conventional diesel fuel (CD), were obtained using response surface methodology, branding it as a sustainable and greener energy source for engine applications. Box-Behnken design matrix was chosen to categorize input factors, levels, and output responses. Examination of the biodiesel reveals that carbon-based constituents make a significant contribution, and the physicochemical properties align with ASTM standards. The optimization results indicate that the optimum levels of BRD, water, and 2-EHN in CD are 20.33 %, 10.26 %, and 2.05 %, respectively. The performance and emission metrics closely match the projected values. An in-depth examination of combustion, engine vibration, life-cycle assessment, and techno-economic analysis provides further evidence to reinforce the findings and suggests possible avenues for future research.

Performance and CO2 emission of a single cylinder compression ignition engine powered by Khaya senegalensis non-edible seeds fuel blends

This work aimed at investigating blends of Khaya senegalensis biodiesel in a compression ignition engine, attempting to improve engine performance and reduce CO2 emission compared with conventional diesel. Analysis of System (ANSYS) was used to predict in-cylinder behavior of the fuel. ANSYS SpaceClaim generated the geometric model on which 5° sector and mesh refinement was on ANSYS Internal Combustion Engine Modeler (ICEM). Computational domain of interest lies within the compression and expansion strokes. Experimental validation followed: 5% biodiesel, 95% diesel (B5); 15% biodiesel, 85% diesel (B15); 25% biodiesel, 75% diesel (B25); pure diesel (D100); pure biodiesel (B100) in volume proportions. B15 has the highest brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of 4 bar as load increases. An experimental and numerical comparison reveals pressure declination against speed increment. Ignition temperature fluctuated between 799.76 and 806.256 K for D100 and 760.73–790.62 K for B100 within 1800–2800 rpm speed limit prediction. Power and brake thermal efficiency (BTE) had parallel load increment with all blends. CO2 emission on increasing load conditions were 47.01%, 8.07%, 21.72% and 6.06% for B5, B15, B25, and B100 respectively lower than D100. Pressure and temperature contours gave proper combustion predicted behaviors. All blends possess replaceable performance potential for D100 however, B5 offers better reliable potentials.

Variation among family of Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre for oil content and seedling growth

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre is a multipurpose tree species that produces non-edible seeds. Pongamia oil has been recognized as a viable source of oil for the burgeoning biofuel industry. The economic feasibility of Pongamia depends on the oil content of the seed. Meanwhile, information on variation among families (parent tree) of seedlings grown is also necessary to increase plant productivity besides the oil content. This study aims to determine the variation among families of Pongamia oil content and seedling growth (generative and vegetative propagation). The seeds were analysed using 48 families for oil content analysis by solvent extraction, 50 families for seedling growth analysis (generative), and 19 families for vegetative. The result showed a significant variation in crude oil content among the families. Oil production varied from 26.61 to 44.68%. Variations among families were also found in seedling growth performance for both generative and vegetative propagation, with an average survival rate up to 75%. The information is essential for the tree improvement program to produce genetically improved seeds of Pongamia for biofuel and land restoration in Indonesia.

Technoeconomic and carbon footprint analysis of simulated industrial scale biodiesel production process from mixed macroalgal and non-edible seed oil using sulphonated zinc doped recyclable biochar catalyst

The present research explored the sustainable production of biodiesel from mixed oils of marine macroalgae and non-edible seeds using a sulphonated Zinc doped recyclable biochar catalyst derived from coconut husk. The maximum biodiesel conversion of 94.8 % was yielded with optimized conditions of 10:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 4.8 % biochar catalyst concentration, 54.5 ℃ temperature and 87.4 min reaction time. A techno-economic assessment provided a favourable return on investment (ROI) of 21.59 % and 4.63 years of reimbursement period, with a calculated minimum selling price of 0.81 $/kg of produced biodiesel. The carbon footprint analysis results estimated an annual emission of 752.07 t CO2 which corresponds to 0.088 kg CO2 emission per kg of biodiesel produced from the simulated process. The study on economic viability and environmental consciousness of biodiesel production not only paves the way for a greener and sustainable future while also contributing to low carbon footprint.

Waste orange seeds (Citrus sinensis seed) transformation, a viable industrial bio-oil: Oil extraction, physicochemical characterization and vital instrumental analyses studies

The processing of Petroleum-based oil has contributed to environmental challenges such as climate change. Recently, research attention has been shifted to oil extraction from different non-edible seeds as a suitable substitute. Accordingly, this study examines the physiochemical characterization, and the effect of extraction temperature on the yield of waste Citrus sinensis seed [orange seed (OS)] bio oil. Studies on the prevalent functional group, fatty acid methyl ester compositions and thermal oxidative stability were carried out using the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GCMS) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), respectively. The oil content of the OS bio oil was 46.26%w/w. The high iodine number (31.47 mg/100 g) and low pour point (4.50 °C) of the OS bio oil showed its high content of unsaturated fatty acid. The FTIR functional group of the OS bio oil showed predominantly alkane of CH stretching, aldehydes, esters, and carboxylic acid. The chemical composition of the OS bio oil as determined by GCMS (massHunter/library/NIST 14.1) showed the occurrence of octadecadienoic and oleic acids as poly-saturated and saturated fat found in plant glycosides and vegetable fats and oil. The DSC thermal stability analysis showed the possible existence of mixed triglycerides. Finally, the result from the physiochemical characterization compositions, and functional group the OS bio oil indicated its potential as a suitable substitute for petroleum-based oil.

Co-pyrolysis of Azadirachta indica non-edible seed and waste LDPE: Analysis of kinetic models using thermogravimetric analyser and prediction modeling with Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

Energy production from waste biomass seeds and plastic wastes must be done immediately, keeping the future in mind, as waste plastic and seeds have become a major source of attractiveness for producing liquid fuel in a pollution-free environment and disposing of waste plastic, which causes serious environmental issues. In this study, theoretical modeling was used to assess the pyrolysis feedstock potential of Azadirachta indica, or Neem non-edible seeds, and waste LDPE (low-density polyethylene) in a set ratio. Thereafter, the TG-DTG data was applied into artificial neural network (ANN). The Azadirachta indica seed-waste LDPE mixture was TG-DTG examined at three heating rates of 10, 20 and 30 °C/min. The thermodynamic parameters were also obtained at the same heating rates. A blend sample requires less energy to pyrolyze than an individual sample. When ANN prediction modeling was used to predict TG-DTG data, R2 was always found unity in training, validation, and testing, and MSE was minimised for all heating rates. Levenberg-Marquardt trained the ANN model. According to the findings of this study, combining Azadirachta indica seed with waste LDPE could be a workable alternative that would result in an improvement to the process as a whole.

Biodiesel production from Capparis spinosa L seed oil using calcium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst derived from oyster shell

Increasing fuel prices and depletion of conventional sources of energy has promoted research in non-conventional sources like biodiesel from non-edible seeds and industrial wastes. The present work focuses on the elicitation of biodiesel from the seeds of capparis spinosa L. The crude bio-oil extracted from the seeds of capparis spinosa L transesterified into biodiesel using calcium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst derived from oyster shells. The oyster shell powder is characterized before and after calcination using XRD and the calcinated oyster shell is observed through SEM to analyze the size of the particle and morphology. The produced biodiesel was characterized by GC analysis and the fuel properties of biodiesel such as density, flash point, cloud point, pour point and kinematic viscosity, ash content, carbon residue was analyzed and compared with commercial diesel.

Production of hydroprocessed renewable diesel from Jatropha oil and evaluation of its properties

Alternative fuel research is primarily motivated by the expeditious depletion in fossil fuel supplies and the need to fulfill rigorous emission regulations, particularly greenhouse gas (GHG) emission for modern diesel engines. Hydroprocessed (or Hydrogenated) renewable diesel (HRD) is seen takes the one’s place with possible option for replacement of fuels for Diesel engines in the hunt for a substitute to fossils based petroleum diesel from diverse sustainable feedstocks such as vegetable oils from non-edible seeds, animal fats or algae oil. Because when we compare cetane number for HRD and petro diesel, it is higher for HRD than the other, which is seen as a probable drop in alternate fuels for compression ignition engines. During production of renewable diesel Hydro-deoxygenation is done first with the help of a catalyst and hydrogen gas, which may be used to upgrade bio-oil instead of hydro-desulfurization (removing of sulphur derivatives from the crude vegetable oil). A sulfided Nickel Molybdenum (NiMo) or Cobalt Molybdenum (CoMo) catalyst based on gamma alumina is utilised as a reference catalyst for HDO in the generation of renewable diesel and is used as a standard catalyst for a hydro-desulfurization process in refineries. Jatropha oil may be thoroughly transformed into paraffins in the diesel range at a pressure of 40 to 90 bar. The obtained product includes gases and different products therefore, it is then transferred for fractional distillation which gets separated at different boiling temperatures. The Physicochemical properties of a hydroprocessed renewable paraffinic fuel were assessed and compared to Biodiesel and traditional petro diesel. The major properties of hydroprocessed renewable diesel like cetane number, flash point and pour point were higher compared that of petroleum diesel, whereas kinematic viscosity and thermal stability was almost similar for both HRD and diesel.

Prediction of some thermo-physical properties of biodiesel using ANFIS and ANN cum sensitivity analysis

• Modeling of cetane number and kinematics viscosity of biodiesel from African pear seed oil. • Artificial neural network model. • Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems. The prediction of kinematic viscosity (KV) and cetane number (CN) of African pear seed oil methyl ester (APOME) using adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) and artificial neural network (ANN) models were carried out. The solvent extraction was used to extract oil from African pear seed and characterized with Association of Analytical Chemist (AOAC) methods. The catalysts were synthesized by thermal and chemical activation methods. The activated clays were characterized and used to convert African pear seed oil (APO) to biodiesel. The physiochemical and thermo-physical properties of the biodiesel were determined using American Society for Testing Materials ASTM D6571 and some of the thermo-physical properties (KV and CN) were modeled using adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system. The APO yielded 52% oil which is equivalent to the yields obtained from other non-edible seeds. The APSOME produced from the APO had qualities that were within the standard limits for biodiesel. The thermo-physical properties of the biodiesel (APSOME) were predicted accurately by ANFIS and ANN with good performance parameters. The double-input-double-output (DIDO) ANN architecture model best predicted the properties with lower root mean square error of 0.03423 and higher coefficient of determination of 0.9999. The biodiesel fraction has 14% more relative contribution than temperature on the thermo-physical properties. Therefore, ANFIS and ANN can be used to predict KV and CN.

Biodiesel production from nonedible feedstocks catalyzed by nanocatalysts: A review

Biodiesel produced from vegetable oil has recently increased in popularity. However, these edible feedstocks (which are the apparent choice of triglycerides) will not be sufficiently sustainable, given the increasing demand for energy and food, and guaranteed inedible feedstocks are needed. Biodiesel can be generated from these alternative feedstocks using various catalysts. Current studies show that nanocatalysts are extensively used for this purpose and are more preferred than usual homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. These nanocatalysts exhibit many advantageous features, including efficient separation steps for both products and catalysts, elimination of the quenching process, high catalytic activity, and large surface area, and provide the possibility for reusability. According to recent reports, the use of nonedible oils and nanocatalysts, such as titanium-doped zinc oxide, magnesium oxide-doped magnesium aluminate, zirconium oxide and many others, are potent with an approximately 80–98 wt% yield of biodiesel under optimized conditions, suggesting that this approach is a suitable option for biodiesel synthesis. This review aims to explore the potency of nonedible feedstocks and nanocatalysts for fatty acid methyl ester synthesis. The findings of the most recent published studies are critically summarized. The catalytic reaction mechanism for biodiesel production is highlighted, focusing on the nanocatalysts. Some nonedible seeds have been reported, and their potency for biodiesel production has been assessed in detail.

Scanning electron microscopy as a tool for authentication of biodiesel synthesis from Linum usitatissimum seed oil.

Utilization of renewable and alternative energy feedstocks such as nonedible seeds oil to deal with the increasing energy crises and related ecological concerns have gained the attention of researchers. Biodiesel is an efficient and renewable substitute for diesel engine. This work investigates the potential of inexpensive nonedible seed oil of Linum usitatissimum to synthesize biodiesel using iron sulfate green nanocatalyst through the process of transesterification. Flax seed contains about 37.5% oil content estimated through Soxhlet apparatus. Light microscopy revealed that seed size varies from 3.0 to 6.0cm in length, 2.0 to 3.3cm in width, and 0.7 to 1.0 mm in diameter. Color of seed varied from yellow to brown. Characterization of biodiesel is performed through GC-MS and FTIR. Scanning electron microscopy was carried out to study the morphological features of seed coat. Catalyst was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy diffraction X-ray, and X-ray diffraction. The diffraction peaks of Fe3 O4 green nanoparticles were found to be in 2θ values, 30.24°, 35.62°, 38.26°, 49.56°, 57.12°, and 62.78°. Fuel properties of biodiesel are also determined and compared with ASTM standards. Linum usitatissimum biodiesel has density 0.8722 (15°C kg/L), kinetic viscosity 5.45 (40°C cSt), flash point (90°C), pour point (-13°C), cloud point (-9°C), sulfur (0.0432% wt), and total acid number (0.245 mg KOH/g). It is concluded that L. usitatissimum seed oil is a highly potential source for biodiesel production to cope with the challenge of present energy demand.

Efficacy of Mineral and Non-Edible Seed Oils Against Aphids and Whitefly in Potato

Field experiments were conducted at the ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute-Regional Station, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh during 2015-16 and 2016-17 to evaluate efficacy of mineral and non-edible seed oils against green-peach aphid Myzus persicae and cotton whitefly Bemisia tabaci in potato. Three sprays were done at 15 days interval revealed that maximum reduction in their incidence was observed with imidacloprid 17.8SL (0.03%) followed by mineral oil (6 ml/ l); B. tabaci incidence reduced by 72.63% and 61.06%, respectively, while it was 87.60% and 62.27% with M. persicae. Similar trend was observed with all the three sprays. The non-edible oils were not effective. Incidence of viruses was the least (0.26 and 0.27%, respectively) with imidacloprid 17.8SL (0.03%) and mineral oil (6 ml/ l). Thus, imidacloprid 17.8SL (0.03%) and mineral oil (6 ml/ l) can be recommended to manage vector-virus complex in potato.

Microscopic techniques for characterization and authentication of oil-yielding seeds.

Investigation of alternative energy sources is need of current time due to growing power crisis and associated environmental issues. Biodiesel is considered as sustainable power source and promising alternative to fossil fuels. Therefore, our current investigation aimed to identify micromorphological characters of 10 novel nonedible oil-yielding seeds through scanning electron microscopy. It was revealed from light microscopic study that there is variation in seed size from 3 to 15 mm in length and 2 to 11 mm in width. Likewise, a huge variation in color was observed such as light green, greenish yellow, blackish brown, and various shades of brown. Presence and absence of Hilum was observed, and compression of seeds varied from depressed, lateral, and dorsoventral. Seed's shape differs from ovate, clavate, triangular ovate, cuneiform, ovoid, and elliptical shape. Seed oil content fall in range of 18-58% (wt/wt). Free fatty acid content of the seeds varies from 0.3 to 3.1mg KOH/g. Ultrastructure of seeds exhibited huge variation in shape, size, periclinal wall, anticlinal wall, and surface ornamentation. Nonedible seeds varied in wall structure from angular, wavy, dentate entire, irregular, puzzled, elongated, even, and polygonal. The periclinal wall arrangements show alteration from flat, looped, raised, depressed, lofty, even, pentagonal, polygonal, and undulate seed margins. Outcomes of this investigation recommended that scanning electron microscopy could act as a helpful tool in disclosing the hidden micromorphological characters among nonedible oil-yielding seeds and subsequently helping in correct, authentic seed identification and classification as potential feedstock for biodiesel.

Energy optimization from a binary mixture of non-edible oilseeds pyrolysis: Kinetic triplets analysis using Thermogravimetric Analyser and prediction modeling by Artificial Neural Network

Pyrolysis kinetics and thermodynamic parameters of two non-edible seeds, Pongamia pinnata (PP) and Sapindus emarginatus (SE), and their blend in the ratio of 1:1 (PS) were studied using the thermogravimetric analyzer. Kinetic triplets were determined using both model-free [Starink (STR), Friedman (FRM), Iterative Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (IT-KAS), Iterative Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (IT-OFW), Vyazovkin (VYZ), and Master plot (MP)] and model fitting Coats-Redfern (CR) methods at three different heating rates 10, 30 and 50 °C/min. Activation energies were 192.66, 179.44, and 163.25 kJ/mol for PP, SE, and PS, respectively. It was found that the blend of the two-biomass (PS) showed promising results with lower activation energy compared to the individual biomass. Thermodynamic parameters (ΔG, ΔS, and ΔH) were obtained using the model-free isoconversional method. The three hidden layers of complex neuron topology are well fitted to the experimental DTG curves by artificial neural network (ANN). The study confirmed that the heating rate had a significant impact on the kinetics and thermodynamic parameters. The reaction mechanism was also in consonance with the experimental data. The study suggests that the PP and SE seeds can be an appropriate feed for pyrolysis, and their blend (PS) can be a viable alternative in optimizing the entire process.

A practical approach for synthesis of biodiesel via non-edible seeds oils using trimetallic based montmorillonite nano-catalyst

The potential of new trimetallic (Ce, Cu, La) loaded montmorillonite clay catalyst for synthesizing biodiesel using novel non-edible Celastrus paniculatus Willd seed oil via two-step transesterification reaction has been reported along with catalyst characterization. Transesterification reaction was optimized and maximum biodiesel yield of 89.42% achieved under optimal operating reaction states like; 1:12 oil to methanol ratio, 3.5% of catalyst amount, 120 °C of reaction temperature for 3 h. The predicted and experimental biodiesel yields under these reaction conditions were 89.42 and 89.40%, which showing less than 0.05% variation. Additionally, optimum biodiesel yield can be predicted by drawing 3D surface plots and 2D contour plots using MINITAB 17 software. For the characterization of the obtained biodiesel, analysis including the GC/MS, FT-IR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR were applied. The fuel properties of obtained biodiesel agrees well with the different European Union (EU-14214), China (GB/T 20828), and American (ASTM-951, 6751) standards.

Studies on dielectric properties and microwave pyrolysis of karanja seed

Non-edible seeds are potential candidates for the production of biofuels and other value added products. The specific objective of this work is to measure the dielectric properties (dielectric constant, loss factor, loss tangent and penetration depth) of karanja seed. The data on dielectric properties of karanja seed will be helpful to understand its microwave absorbing capacity and heating behaviour in the microwave pyrolysis process. In this work, the dielectric properties of karanja seed are determined at ambient temperature and in the frequency range 0.1–3.0 GHz. The loss tangent values of karanja seed obtained at the two recognized commercial frequencies of 915 MHz and 2.45 GHz are compared with those of some biomass available in the literature. Finally, the karanja seed is pyrolyzed in a domestic microwave oven at four different power inputs of 500 W, 600 W, 700 W and 800 W. The microwave pyrolysis characteristics of karanja seed is determined in terms of temperature variation inside the reactor and pyrolysis products yields at different power inputs. The chemical composition and fuel properties of the produced bio-oil are measured. The loss tangent of karanja seed at 2.45 GHz is 1.3, which is higher than lignocellulosic biomass like oil palm fibre (0.08). The results of the dielectric properties of the present work shows that karanja seed has better microwave absorption characteristics compared to lignocellulosic biomass. In the actual pyrolysis process in a domestic microwave oven at different power inputs, the heating rate is found to range between 0.661 and 1.157°C/s which is considerably higher than that achieved using electrical heating (0.16–0.33°C/s). The bio-oil yield increases as the power input is increased from 500 to 700 W. The maximum bio-oil yield of 47% is obtained at 700 W. The GC-MS analysis of bio-oil has shown the presence of larger amounts of hydrocarbons, esters, alcohols, very little amount of aromatics and zero sulphur-containing compounds. The fuel properties of bio-oil show that it is a non-acidic and safer fuel. The calorific value of bio-oil is 40% lower than diesel, and its viscosity is 8.5 times higher than diesel. The results reveal that the karanja seed could be pyrolyzed by microwave heating to produce bio-oil which can be used as fuel for diesel engines by suitably upgrading it by blending with diesel fuel.

Non-Edible Seeds for the Production of Biodiesel

The global energy demand is increasing day by day. The consumption of the fuel, as well as the demand, is expected to grow rapidly and use of fossil energy is causing harmful impacts on the environment. Biofuels are attractive alternative to petroleum diesel derived from a variety of feedstocks, vegetable oils, animal fats, and waste cooking oil. They are renewable, non-toxic and biodegradable. At present, biodiesel is mainly produced from many edible oils seed. The extensive use of edible oils for production of biodiesel may lead to food crisis. Therefore, production of biodiesel from non-edible oils is a successful method to overcome all the related problems with edible oils.