Non-drinking Water Research Articles

Occurrence of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in garden produce at homes with a history of PFAS-contaminated drinking water

The decades-long disposal of manufacturing waste containing perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in landfills resulted in contamination of groundwater serving as the drinking water supply for the eastern Twin Cities metropolitan region. While measures were taken to reduce the levels of PFAS in the drinking water, questions remained about possible non-drinking water pathways of exposure in these communities. The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) investigated whether PFAS in water used for yard and garden irrigation results in elevated concentrations of PFAS in soil and home-grown produce. In 2010, samples of outdoor tap water, garden soil, and garden produce were collected at homes impacted by the contamination and analyzed for several PFAS. Perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) was the primary PFAS present in water, followed by perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA). Although PFBA, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were present in 100% of soil samples at higher concentrations compared to other PFAS, only PFBA was readily translocated to plants. Significant determinants of PFBA concentration in produce were the amount of PFBA applied to the garden via watering and the type of produce tested. Results from this real-world study are consistent with experimental findings that short-chain PFAS have the highest potential to translocate to and bioaccumulate in edible plants. These findings are globally relevant, as short-chain PFAS serve as commercial substitutes for longer-chain compounds and are increasingly detected in water due to their relatively high solubility and mobility.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of human exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid suggests historical non drinking-water exposures are important for predicting current serum concentrations

Manufacturing of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a synthetic chemical with a long half-life in humans, peaked between 1970 and 2002, and has since diminished. In the United States, PFOA is detected in the blood of >99% of people tested, but serum concentrations have decreased since 1999. Much is known about exposure to PFOA in drinking water; however, the impact of non-drinking water PFOA exposure on serum PFOA concentrations is not well characterized.The objective of this research is to apply physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling and Monte Carlo analysis to evaluate the impact of historic non-drinking water PFOA exposure on serum PFOA concentrations.In vitro to in vivo extrapolation was utilized to inform descriptions of PFOA transport in the kidney. Monte Carlo simulations were incorporated to evaluate factors that account for the large inter-individual variability of serum PFOA concentrations measured in individuals from North Alabama in 2010 and 2016, and the Mid-Ohio River Valley between 2005 and 2008.Predicted serum PFOA concentrations were within two-fold of experimental data. With incorporation of Monte Carlo simulations, the model successfully tracked the large variability of serum PFOA concentrations measured in populations from the Mid-Ohio River Valley. Simulation of exposure in a population of 45 adults from North Alabama successfully predicted 98% of individual serum PFOA concentrations measured in 2010 and 2016, respectively, when non-drinking water ingestion of PFOA exposure was included.Variation in serum PFOA concentrations may be due to inter-individual variability in the disposition of PFOA and potentially elevated historical non-drinking water exposures.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of human cysticercosis and taeniasis prevalence in a highly endemic area of epilepsy in Bangoua, west Cameroon

Cysticercosis caused by the larvae of Taenia solium is a serious and emerging threat to public health in the endemic areas as well as in the non-endemic areas. Neurocysticercosis, an affection of the central nervous system is a leading cause of epilepsy in endemic areas. This study was carried out to investigate human cysticercosis, taeniasis and risk factors, and also their association with epilepsy in Bangoua, west Cameroon where epilepsy is highly prevalent. Out of 384 people investigated, 12 (3.1%) exhibited antibody response against low molecular weight antigens of T. solium by ELISA. Immunoblot revealed that six persons (1.6%) were seropositive with the same antigens. Among 61 epileptic patients, only one was seropositive by immunoblot and the study did not find any statistically significant difference (P>0.05) in seropositivity to T. solium between epileptic persons (1/61, 1.6%) and non-epileptic group (5/323, 1.5%). In addition, cysticercosis was associated with households eating pork meat from pigs slaughtered at home, but not with other factors. The risk factors including pig farming, the consumption of pork meat, vegetables, and non-drinkable water were attenuated by the relatively good hygiene and pig husbandry practices of the population. No egg of Taenia was found in stool by microscopic examination. All data obtained in this study suggested that cysticercosis might not be the principal causative agent of epilepsy in this area.

Estimating the Rainwater Potential per Household in an Urban Area: Case Study in Central Mexico

In cities with problems of aridity and a shortage of drinking water supply, there is an urgent need to establish alternatives for an adequate water management program. This study proposes an estimation through which users can select a rainwater harvesting system for non-drinking water consumption. For the cities of Pachuca and Mineral de la Reforma, State of Hidalgo, Central Mexico, the historical record of rainfall analyzed covers a period of 33 years (1980–2013). We calculated the monthly volume of rainwater harvestable from roof areas (VR, m3) with household roof areas (Hra) of 45 m2, 50 m2, 100 m2 and 200 m2. It is proposed to replace in each single house the flush toilets and washing machine with ecological devices with consumptions of 4.8 L/flush and 70 L/load, respectively. Furthermore, a maximum and a minimum consumption of eight and six flushes/day/person (flush toilets) and five and four loads/week (washing machine), respectively, are proposed. From these considerations, our estimations of the harvestable rainwater showed that households with Hra of 45 m2 and 50 m2 would depend on the water supply system of the public network during part of the year. On the other hand, households with Hra of 100 m2 and 200 m2 might be able to store enough water to meet other needs besides toilet flushing and laundry.

Sensitivity of algorithm parameters and objective function scaling in multi-objective optimisation of water distribution systems

This paper presents an extensive analysis of the sensitivity of multi-objective algorithm parameters and objective function scaling tested on a large number of parameter setting combinations for a water distribution system optimisation problem. The optimisation model comprises two operational objectives minimised concurrently, the pump energy costs and deviations of constituent concentrations as a water quality measure. This optimisation model is applied to a regional non-drinking water distribution system, and solved using the optimisation software GANetXL incorporating the NSGA-II linked with the network analysis software EPANet. The sensitivity analysis employs a set of performance metrics, which were designed to capture the overall quality of the computed Pareto fronts. The performance and sensitivity of NSGA-II parameters using those metrics is evaluated. The results demonstrate that NSGA-II is sensitive to different parameter settings, and unlike in the single-objective problems, a range of parameter setting combinations appears to be required to reach a Pareto front of optimal solutions. Additionally, inadequately scaled objective functions cause the NSGA-II bias towards the second objective. Lastly, the methodology for performance and sensitivity analysis may be used for calibration of algorithm parameters.

EFFECT OF HEATING ON SIMPLY SUPPORTED REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS

This laboratory research is concerned with the behavior of reinforced concrete deep beams, being exposed to high temperatures for one time or more. Two types of mixing water are used, namely, drinkable water (tap water) and non-drinkable water (raw water) brought from local wells in Baquba city, a situation which is currently under use in Iraq especially in large urban and nonurban engineering facilities. The specialized high temperature furnace is manufactured used in this study to heat twenty-four specimens. Later on after deep beams are casted, specimens are cooled down by two ways, gradually, by leaving them in the air for one day, and the fast way by gently putting them in water. This is to reflect the case of fire extinguish process with integrity of concrete. Testing of beams is carried out by loading each beam, using flexural machine, with two concentrated loads till failure. Test results show that using raw water in casting concrete (no heat exposure) leads to significant decrease in shear strength and an increase in deflection in comparison with using tap water. It is also observed that heat and then rapidly cooling causes a touchable strength decrease and deflection increase especially when raw water is used for concrete casting. Finally, it is worth to mention that the lowest percent reduction in loading strength recorded is that for specimens cast with non-drinkable water and exposed to cyclic temperatures, with rapid cooling at each time.

Mycobacteria in water used for personal hygiene in heavy industry and collieries: a potential risk for employees.

Environmental mycobacteria (EM) constitute a health risk, particularly for immunocompromised people. Workers in heavy industry and in collieries represent an at-risk group of people as their immunity is often weakened by long-term employment in dusty environments, frequent smoking and an increased occurrence of pulmonary diseases. This study was concerned with the presence of EM in non-drinking water used for the hygiene of employees in six large industrial companies and collieries. Over a period of ten years, 1096 samples of surface water treated for hygiene purposes (treated surface water) and treated surface water diluted with mining water were examined. EM were detected in 63.4 and 41.5% samples of treated surface water and treated surface water diluted with mining water, respectively. Mycobacterium gordonae, M. avium-intracellulare and M. kansasii were the most frequently detected species. Adoption of suitable precautions should be enforced to reduce the incidence of mycobacteria in shower water and to decrease the infectious pressure on employees belonging to an at-risk group of people.

Drinking cholera: salinity levels and palatability of drinking water in coastal Bangladesh.

To measure the salinity levels of common water sources in coastal Bangladesh and explore perceptions of water palatability among the local population to investigate the plausibility of linking cholera outbreaks in Bangladesh with ingestion of saline-rich cholera-infected river water. Hundred participants took part in a taste-testing experiment of water with varying levels of salinity. Salinity measurements were taken of both drinking and non-drinking water sources. Informal group discussions were conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of water sources and water uses. Salinity levels of non-drinking water sources suggest that the conditions for Vibrio cholerae survival exist 7-8days within the local aquatic environment. However, 96% of participants in the taste-testing experiment reported that they would never drink water with salinity levels that would be conducive to V.cholerae survival. Furthermore, salinity levels of participant's drinking water sources were all well below the levels required for optimal survival of V.cholerae. Respondents explained that they preferred less salty and more aesthetically pleasing drinking water. Theoretically, V.cholerae can survive in the river systems in Bangladesh; however, water sources which have been contaminated with river water are avoided as potential drinking water sources. Furthermore, there are no physical connecting points between the river system and drinking water sources among the study population, indicating that the primary driver for cholera cases in Bangladesh is likely not through the contamination of saline-rich river water into drinking water sources.

비음용 지하수 오염물질 기준설정체계 구축 연구: (2) 일반오염물질

ABSTRACT To data, there was no systematic basis for establishing the content and allowed levels of general contamination substancesin the Korean groundwater quality standards for non-drinking water. Recently, use of specific procedures for deriving validgroundwater quality standards have become mandatory. This study first investigated the methodology for derivinggroundwater quality standards in the European Commission (EC), considering background groundwater quality anddomestic and international standards related to water quality. Furthermore, this study investigated the existing specifiedprocedure of standards related to water quality (e.g. surface water, drinking water, and wastewater). Our findings showedthat EC and Member States presented the methods for deriving groundwater threshold values for general chemicals.Finally, we have proposed the following procedures of deriving Korean groundwater quality: (1) Selection of groundwaterpollutant population, (2) selection and monitoring of priority substances, (3) monitoring, (4) selection of groundwaterquality standard candidates, (5) selection of new substances and values for groundwater quality standards.Keywords : General contamination substances, Groundwater, Water quality standards

Choosing bottled over tapped: drinking water in the Dominican Republic

While not designated as an improved drinking water source, bottled water is increasingly used by households in low- and middle-income countries as families strive to obtain perceived safer drinking water. The Dominican Republic has high levels of bottled water use despite high levels of piped water access. This study aimed to identify household characteristics that are associated with choosing bottled over tapped drinking water in the Dominican Republic through further examination of data available from a nationally representative Demographic and Healthy Survey from 2007. Among households reporting tapped water as their primary non-drinking water source, 59.6% identified bottled water as their principal drinking water source in comparison with 24.7% identifying tapped water. Greater wealth explained the largest amount of variance in bottled over tapped drinking water. Other hypothesized variables related to choosing bottled over tapped included residence in more urban settings, having a young child in the household, having fewer persons in the household, and a head of household who is female, younger and with higher education. Nationally, representative data which include components investigating perceptions about drinking water and actual quality of drinking water are required to further understand this phenomenon and its impact.

Exploration of the Trade-Offs between Water Quality and Pumping Costs in Optimal Operation of Regional Multiquality Water Distribution Systems

AbstractThis paper explores the trade-offs between water quality and pumping costs objectives in optimization of operation of regional multiquality water distribution systems. The optimization model is designed to concurrently minimize each objective, where water quality is represented by the deviations of constituent concentrations from required values and pumping costs are represented by energy consumed by the pumps. The optimization problem is solved using an optimization software, incorporating the nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II), linked with network analysis software. Two typical but purposefully different example networks are used. First, a network with multiple water sources of different qualities and second, a network with one water source only, which was converted to represent a regional nondrinking water distribution system. The trade-offs between water quality and pumping costs are explored using a total of 14 scenarios reflecting different water quality configurations of th...

제주지역 노로바이러스의 발생 특성

The occurrence trends and moleculargenetic characteristics of noroviruses detected from gastroenteritis patients in Jeju from 2008 to 2010 were investigated. In addition, the norovirus contamination and its characteristics of groundwaters in Jeju were examined. The incidence caused by norovirus in viral gastroenteritis patients has increased every year and was higher in male than in female. The patients caused by norovirus occurred throughout all months. The incidences started to increase from November, were very high from December to February, started to decrease from March, and were very low from June to September. The patients caused by norovirus occurred throughout all ages, however, the infants below 5 years were the most susceptible to norovirus infection and the age group from teens to forties were the most insensitive to norovirus infection. The sequencing analysis showed that 18 genotypes (8 genogroup I (GI) and 10 genogroup II (GII)) were detected, the incidences caused by GI and GII were 11.5% and 88.5%, respectively, and predominant genotype was GII-4 (70.5%), which was the major genotype giving rise to norovirus incidences in Jeju, together with GII-3 (6.1%) and GI-4 (4.1%). Among 20 groundwaters sampled at 9 wells (4 non-drinking water wells and 5 drinking water wells), noroviruses were detected from 2 groundwaters sampled at one non-drinking water well and their genotypes were GI-5 and GI-8.

비음용 지하수 오염물질 기준설정체계 구축 연구: (1) 특정유해물질

There is a need to establish systematic procedure of groundwater quality standards, however, there were no specified basis for establishing substances and values in Korean groundwater quality standards for non-drinking water. In this study, we reviewed basis for deriving groundwater quality standard in the developed countries, considering carcinogenic and non-carciongenic risk via inhalation and dermal contact exposure pathways. Also, we reviewed the prior systematic procedure of standards related to water quality (e.g. drinking water, surface water, and wastewater). USEPA RAGS, ASTM RBCA, and Massachusettes presented the formulas for deriving groundwater concentrations of chemicals and there were similarity and differences. We suggests systematic procedure of groundwater quality standards, as follows. (1) Selection of groundwater pollutants population, (2) Possibility of risk assessment, (3) Selection of monitoring priority substances, (4) Monitoring, (5) Risk assessment, (6) Selection of groundwater quality standard candidates, (7) Selection of new substances and values for groundwater quality standards. Especially, groundwater concentration of hazardous material were presented according to revised risk formulas via inhalation and dermal contact.

Environmental Prevalence of Pathogens in Different Drinking Water Resources in Makkah City (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)

Water is the most important substance in our daily life. Without it, life would not have been possible. Potable water is essential to humans and other life forms, as water is important to the mechanics of biological metabolisms in the body. Drinking water should be pure and free of contaminants to ensure proper health and wellness. Drinking water from different water resources such as wells and tankers should be free from contamination with waterborne pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites.Treatment of water using many ways is generally done in order to purify it.However, some water treatment techniques may not properly handled. In addition, water transferring techniques may contaminate the drinking water. Therefore, this study was aim toinvestigate drinking water in wells and tankers to observe any microbial pathogen presence as a source of health hazard.One hundred and eightwater samples from different sources were examined for microbial pathogens using filtration method on solid and liquid selective media. Four sources include sea desalinated water(SDW) from governmental water desalination factories, drinkable wells water (DWW), non-drinkable wells water (NDWW) and commercial desalinated water(CDW)from small commercial water desalination factories.Seven DWW samples (58.3%) and five NDWW samples (41.7%) were contaminated with E. coli. Eleven DWW samples (91.7%) and all NDWW samples (100%) were contaminated with P. aeruginosa. One DWW sample (8.3%) and twoNDWW samples (16.7%) were contaminated with E. faecalis. Four DWW samples (33.3%) and one NDWW sample (8.3%) were found contaminated with aspergillus spp. Four SDW samples (100%) and four CDW samples (50%) were contaminated with Penicillium spp. Conclusion:CDWwas found to be the more suitable than other sources for drinking if a biological hazard is the main target. However, contamination at transferring process should be addressed. Yet, water tanker which is a common transferring technique in many areas in Saudi Arabia and should be tested for safety level from point of contamination hazard during the transferring process.

Grey water reclamation by decentralized MBR prototype

Grey water treatment and reuse for non-drinking water requirements has become of great interest in arid and semi-arid zones where water resources are becoming both quantitatively and qualitatively scarce. In this study a decentralized and automatic MBR prototype has been designed and installed in the REMOSA facilities for treatment of low-load grey water to be recycled in flushing-toilet application. The recycling treatment of grey water comprises four stages: screening, biological oxidation, filtration and a final disinfection by chlorination. The influent and effluent were monitored in order to determine the treatment efficiency and assessment of the quality potential of treated grey water. The results obtained indicate that recycling of grey water allows an effluent of excellent quality with organic, surfactants and microbial parameters under the limits defined by Spanish legislation for urban water reuse. The disinfection of treated grey water is required to ensure compliance with microbial standards and to avoid the health risk in storage and application of recycled water.

Drinking water supply by reverse osmosis plants: three years of experience at El Prat de Llobregat Municipality

Deep coastal aquifer of Llobregat delta constitutes the main source of drinking water supply to El Prat de Llobregat municipality (64,000 inhabitants) near Barcelona (Spain). Since 70s this aquifer initiates a gradual salinization process by seawater intrusion, magnified by an exhaustive and not ordered water extraction. Also, aquifer pollution by volatile organic compounds (trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene) appeared in 90s. In order to remove groundwater pollution, three air stripping plants were built 15 years ago. When groundwater salinity achieved non-drinking water standards, two water treatment plants (Sagnier WTP and Mas Blau WTP) were built using reverse osmosis technology. Both WTPs by RO has a pre-treatment based in volatile organic compounds removal by air stripping, in-line coagulation (only for one WTP), multimedia filtration, cartridge filtration and scaling inhibitor dosage. Chlorination and dechlorination is available but it is not used. Each WTP has two RO lines with two stages and 75% recovery design. As energy recovery device, Turbo Charger is working as booster pump between first and second stage. Drinking water quality according to Spanish regulations is achieved using filtered water by-pass blend and postchlorination before distribution tank. Operation and maintenance aspects are monitored using supervisory control and data acquisition register and remote/local control by O&M team of Aigües del Prat (public company). Water quality (raw water, filtered water, RO feed, permeate, blend, distribution tank and point of use) is monitored daily by Aigües del Prat laboratory (accredited under ISO 17025) according to drinking water Spanish regulations and municipality health criteria. Since January 2009, Aigües del Prat produces without interruption the 90% of drinking water of El Prat municipality using RO plants. This paper presents the experience acquired on operation and maintenance, reliability, drinking water quality distributed control, groundwater quality evolution, network changes and public perception.

Treated wastewater reuse in South Africa: Overview, potential and challenges

Many communities in South Africa struggle to access reliable and adequate quantities of potable water for diverse water requirements. This is against the backdrop of decreasing freshwater availability and increasing water demands. Currently, interest in the reuse of wastewater for non-drinking water requirements is increasing. This paper therefore provides an overview of the South African water resources situation and wastewater 1 1 Wastewater refers to domestic, institutional, and industrial liquid waste products collected through networks of pipes (sewers) into treatment plant. generation in order to put the need for wastewater reuse into perspective. Potential for broader implementation and parameters influencing wastewater reuse based on local attitudes and experience were discussed with recommendations to facilitate broader implementation of wastewater reuse. This paper concludes that significant potential exists for implementing wastewater reuse for large non-drinking applications (e.g. landscape irrigation and industrial processes) in arid areas of South Africa especially Western Cape Province. Parameters highlighted from local attitudes and experience to influence broader implementation in addition to aridity include distance from source, retrofitting versus new installations, quantity of reuse, tariffs, source quality, public health, willingness, public trust and knowledge, and regulations and guidelines for reuse. Prior to implementation, it is recommended that these parameters be addressed.

Identification of dissolved organic species in non-drinking tap water by solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

A method is presented for qualitative identification of dissolved volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in non-drinking tap water samples based on applications of both solid-phase extraction (SPE) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometric (GC–MS) techniques. Water samples were collected and passed over a micro-column packed with acid treated active silica gel phase (pH=2.6) for adsorption of dissolved organic species under this pH-condition. Silica-bound-organics were then divided into equal portions followed by suspension into organic solvents of different polarities such as methanol, ethanol, butan-1-ol, ethyl acetate, diethyl ether and chloroform. These suspensions were then automatically shaken for 1h at room temperature. The organic extracts were subjected to GC–MS analysis under temperature programming conditions. The mass spectrum of each eluted chromatographic peak was library searched or manually interpreted to identify the correct name and structure. Blank solvent and silica samples were also subjected to the same GC–MS analysis for comparison.

Collecting household water usage data: telephone questionnaire or diary?

BackgroundQuantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA), a modelling approach, is used to assess health risks. Inputs into the QMRA process include data that characterise the intensity, frequency and duration of exposure to risk(s). Data gaps for water exposure assessment include the duration and frequency of urban non-potable (non-drinking) water use. The primary objective of this study was to compare household water usage results obtained using two data collection tools, a computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) and a 7-day water activity diary, in order to assess the effect of different methodological survey approaches on derived exposure estimates. Costs and logistical aspects of each data collection tool were also examined.MethodsA total of 232 households in an Australian dual reticulation scheme (where households are supplied with two grades of water through separate pipe networks) were surveyed about their water usage using both a CATI and a 7-day diary. Householders were questioned about their use of recycled water for toilet flushing, garden watering and other outdoor activities. Householders were also questioned about their water use in the laundry. Agreement between reported CATI and diary water usage responses was assessed.ResultsResults of this study showed that the level of agreement between CATI and diary responses was greater for more frequent water-related activities except toilet flushing and for those activities where standard durations or settings were employed. In addition, this study showed that the unit cost of diary administration was greater than for the CATI, excluding consideration of the initial selection and recruitment steps.ConclusionThis study showed that it is possible to successfully 'remotely' coordinate diary completion providing that adequate instructions are given and that diary recording forms are well designed. In addition, good diary return rates can be achieved using a monetary incentive and the diary format allows for collective recording, rather than an individual's estimation, of household water usage. Accordingly, there is merit in further exploring the use of diaries for collection of water usage information either in combination with a mail out for recruitment, or potentially in the future with Internet-based recruitment (as household Internet uptake increases).

Overview of Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) Detections in Public Drinking Water Supplies in the United States

We provide a review and summary of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) water monitoring data that have been collected as part of national, multi-state, and state-wide assessments in the United States. Specifically, we summarize the key attributes of 24 publicly available studies or data sets and characterize the detection frequency and detected concentrations of MTBE for different water types based on these studies. The original sampling data from each study were obtained and independently analyzed wherever possible. For each study, the detection frequency of MTBE was calculated assuming any concentration above the reporting or analytical limit of detection and at three different concentrations (1, 5, and 20 μg/L). Detected concentrations of MTBE were based on all reported drinking water samples and were computed using summary statistics such as the median, mean, range, and distribution percentiles. The primary focus of this assessment is on MTBE detections in public drinking water served by groundwater or surface water, although several published studies also contain sampling data from domestic (private) drinking water wells. Some non-drinking water data sets (e.g., sampling data from ambient groundwater) are also included because it was not always possible to identify or separate these data by water type due to the manner in which they were coded or reported. These latter studies therefore contain some sampling data that are not informative for assessing MTBE drinking water exposures to consumers.