Nondestructive Deformation Research Articles

Some features of dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride high conversion polymerization in aqueous solutions

The kinetic features of the high conversion radical polymerization of N, N-dimethyl- N, N-diallyl ammonium chloride (DMDAAC) in aqueous solutions have been studied for the first time. Kinetic measurements have been carried out by calorimetry. Special rheokinetic studies of the DMDAAC polymerization under conditions of small amplitude cyclic non-destructive deformation (dynamic measurements) produce independent information on the high conversion reaction.

Effects of Feeding White Leghorn Hens Diets that Contain Deoxynivalenol (Vomitoxin)-Contaminated Wheat

A short-term (10 weeks, Experiment 1) and a long-term experiment (24 weeks, Experiment 2) were done to determine effects of incorporating either white winter wheat, naturally contaminated with 1 mg deoxynivalenol (DON)/kg, or spring wheats, containing up to 6.5 mg DON/kg, into the diets of White Leghorn hens. Based on chemical analysis, the diets in Experiment 1 contained <.05 to .7 mg DON/kg, while those in Experiment 2 contained from .2 to 4.9 mg/kg. Incorporation of winter or spring wheat in the experimental diets had no effect (P>.05) on feed intake and efficiency, egg production and yield, the number of soft shell and cracked eggs observed in the laying house, body weight at the completion of the experimental period, fertility, hatchability of fertile eggs, and the proportion of malformed embryos and pips. In addition, presence of DON-contaminated wheat did not influence (P>.05) the organ weight to body weight ratio for a randomly selected sample of hens necropsied at the completion of each experiment. There was little evidence of lesions in the oral cavity, esophagus, proventriculus and gizzard, hemorrhaging in the viscera or skeletal muscles, or of changes in the appearance of spleen, heart, and kidney. However, the livers from DON hens were fatty in appearance. Furthermore, vomiting (emesis), diarrhea, or changes in behaviour were not apparent and mortality, normally very low, was not increased during either experiment. Inverse linear relationships were obtained in Experiment 1 between dietary DON concentrations and egg weight (P<.05), shell weight and thickness (P<.01), and percent shell (P<.05). Although egg and shell variables measured in Experiment 2 were not significantly influenced (P>.05) by DON treatment, trends towards lower values with higher dietary DON levels were evident. Egg specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, and quasistatic compression fracture strength of the egg's shell were not influenced (P>.05) by dietary DON levels. The results from these experiments indicate that laying hens can tolerate diets containing up to 5 mg DON/kg from white winter or spring wheat for extended periods of time without serious adverse effects on health and productivity.

Egg Quality. 1. Shell Strength of Eggs from Five Commercial Strains of White Leghorn Hens During Their First Laying Cycle

Eggs were collected 18 times from five strains of commercial White Leghorn hens between 197 and 484 days of age. Egg weight, specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, and quasistatic compression breaking strength were measured on all eggs. Shell weight, percent shell, and shell weight per unit surface area were available for eggs collected between 372 and 484 days of age. Shell thickness was measured at 421, 449, and 477 days of age. Age and strain (P<.01) influenced all the variables except shell thickness, which was affected only by strain (P<.05). Egg weight and deformation increased and specific gravity and compression breaking strength decreased over the experimental period. Shell weight, percent shell, and shell weight per unit surface area decreased slightly between 372 and 484 days. The variability, expressed as the standard deviation of an observation, remained relatively constant for specific gravity, egg weight, shell weight, percent shell, and shell weight per unit surface area. It increased for deformation between 197 and 484 days. The variability of compression breaking strength was not constant over the experimental period, but neither did it exhibit any simple trend. There were few interactions: strains of hens which had the highest shell quality at 197 days also had the highest at 484 days.

Genetic Variation in Shell Strength and Its Relationship to Egg Size

Approximately 13,300 eggs from 575 Single Comb White Leghorn (SCWL) hens from 20 sire families were evaluated for variation in shell strength and egg weight and the relationship between strength and weight. Nondestructive deformation was used to assess shell strength from onset of lay dirough 77 weeks of age. Additional assessments of shell strength by breaking strength and percent shell were made at 41, 60, 68, and 77 weeks of age.The values for shell strength and egg weight were erratic for the first 7 weeks of lay. Heritabilities for egg weight ranged from .32 ± .10 to .45 ± .16 with the highest estimates obtained during the period of 31 to 37 weeks of age. The range of heritabilities for deformation was .18 ± .09 to .38 ± .11 with the highest estimates also occurring during the 31 to 37 weeks of age period.Differences between sire families in deformation during the period of selection (31 to 37 weeks of age) were present through the 77-week test period. The low-shell-strength families showed a decrease in shell strength at an earlier age than the high-strength families.Phenotypic correlations between egg weight and shell deformation were near zero, whereas frenetic correlations of these variables ranged from −.29 to −.57. These correlations indicate that selection for shell deformation would not have a deleterious effect on egg weight.

The Relationship Between Laboratory Measures of Egg Shell Quality and Breakage in Commercial Egg Washing and Candling Equipment

Eggs from 494 hens of two White Leghorn strains were passed through egg-washing and candling equipment three times. At each cycle, the cracked and broken eggs were removed and a sample of the intact eggs obtained. Records were kept of the hen that laid each egg. Egg and shell quality measurements were obtained from additional eggs of the same hens; they were used to rank the birds as to the quality of their eggs by each measure.Breakage of eggs was high for the three cycles of washing and candling (7.8, 13, and 13.3%, respectively). The shell weight, percentage shell, shell thickness, specific gravity (by Archimedes’ method), and shell weight per unit surface area were significantly (P<.05) higher for the intact than for the cracked and broken eggs. However, in each case, the range of values almost completely overlapped, indicating that factors other than shell quality influence shell breakage. For each of these variables, as well as quasi-static compression fracture strength and nondestructive deformation, the patterns of breakage in the four quartiles, obtained by ranking the birds, were remarkably similar. The incidence of shell damage over the three cycles was about 45% in the lowest quartile and 15% in the highest, whatever the variable used to define the quartiles.

Observations on Daily Variation in Feed Intake and Shell Strength of Eggs from White Leghorn Pullets and Force Molted Hens

Variation in feed intake, egg and shell weight, and five estimates of shell strength were measured over 14 days in one experiment and 56 days in another. Forty-eight force molted hens were used in the first experiment, and 36 pullets and 36 force-molted hens in the second. Shell thickness (STK), specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, quasistatic compression fracture strength (CFS) and specific strength (CFS/STK) were used to measure shell strength. In both experiments, birds from two strains were used; in the second, two rooms were used with the strains and age of bird balanced across rooms.Plots of the daily means and the ranges showed systematic variation from day to day with marked changes occurring within a few days. The differences among days were significant (P<.01 in most cases) for all variables measured in both experiments, except for egg weight in Experiment 1 (P>.05). Little evidence was found of a relationship between feed intake and shell quality. There were few significant interactions (P<.05) between strain, age, or room and day. These results show that research on egg shell strength should be planned so that systematic daily variation is not confounded with treatment comparisons.

Repeatability of Egg Shell Quality Measurements Within Individual Hens

Correlations of egg measurements between eggs laid by the same hen were examined using two experimental strains of White Leghorns, a control strain and a strain selected for high production and specific gravity. Eggs were collected for 56 days from 72 birds, that is, 18 pullets and 18 force-molted hens from each strain. At the beginning of the experiment, the pullets were 342 days of age and the force-molted hens 721 days of age. Egg variables measured were egg and shell weight, specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, quasi-static compression force to fracture, and shell thickness. Correlations between the same measurements on eggs laid 1 day apart were .89, .82, .67, .36, .50, and .54, respectively; these correlations decreased relatively little even for eggs laid 40 days apart. Correlations between mean measures on eggs gathered over successive 14-day periods were much higher – .94, .90, .84, .78, .85 and .81, respectively – reflecting the diminished influence of random variation within bird. Correlations within age-strain groups were smaller than the overall values, but the correlations seemed generally consistent from group to group. These results indicate that the measurements of shell strength from eggs of a bird provide a reliable indicator of the strength of future egg shells from that bird.

Methods and Factors That Affect the Measurement of Egg Shell Quality ,

Egg shell breakage accounts for a loss of 7 to 8% of the total eggs laid. Because shell breakage is related to egg shell strength, numerous methods have been developed to measure shell strength in relation to egg breakage. These methods can be divided into those that measure shell strength indirectly and those that measure directly. Egg specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, and beta backscatter are examples of indirect methods and quasi-static compression fracture, impact fracture, and puncture force are examples of direct measurements. A major advantage with indirect methods is that multiple measurements of shell strength may be taken on the same egg and the egg may be subsequently hatched, whereas with the direct methods the shell is fractured during the measurement. Factors known to influence the measurement of shell strength include the temperature of eggs, the length of time between oviposition and measurements, the sequence in which indirect measurements are taken, the compression rate and response time of recording equipment used to measure deformation, compression fracture and puncture force, the configuration and roughness of the surfaces of the measuring equipment that contact the egg shell, the deformation within the measuring equipment, and possibly the moisture content of the shell. Details of these factors should be reported with shell strength data. In general, there is a moderate relationship (r<.75) between data from indirect and direct shell strength measurements. There is a curvilinear relationship between shell strength and egg shell breakage. Further research is required to determine which of die indirect or direct methods best predict shell breakage under field conditions and to develop a model that will explain the strength of the hen's egg shell.

Relationship Between Blood Ionized Calcium Levels and Shell Strength of Eggs Laid by White Leghorn Hens ,

Hens of four experimental strains of White Leghorns, which had been selected into low and high specific gravity (SG) groups based on SG of eggs of the first laying year, were used in the second laying year to determine the relationship between blood ionized calcium (ICa) levels and egg shell strength. Hens were bled 2.5 hr after oviposition. Blood variables measured included ICa, pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) and bicarbonate (HCO3−) of whole blood, and total calcium of plasma. Measurements on the eggs collected on day of blood sampling and on the following day included SG, egg weight, nondestructive deformation (DFM), quasi-static compression fracture strength (CFS), shell weight, and thickness.There were significant differences (P<.01) among strain means for SG, egg weight, and deformation. Hens selected for high SG eggs produced eggs with greater (P<.001) shell weight and thickness SG and CFS, and lower (P<.001) DFM than did hens selected for low SG eggs. However, there were no differences (P>.05) in acid-base balance (pH, pCO2, HCO3–), blood ICa, and plasma total calcium bertween the two SG groups even when presence or absence of forming egg shell was considered. There was a very weak relationship (r = –.21 to +.18) between blood ICa or plasma total calcium and SG, DFM, CFS, or shell thickness.

Relationships Among Various Egg Traits Relating to Shell Strength Among and Within Five Avian Species

Eggs were collected from five avian species: goose, turkey, duck, Japanese quail, and the domestic hen. The hen eggs included brown-shelled and white-shelled eggs from pullets and white-shelled eggs from force molted birds. After a logarithmic transformation had been applied to the data, relationships between various egg and shell traits, in particular those relating to shell strength, were considered both on an “among species” and a “within species” basis. It was found that among species the correlations between shell strength, as expressed by quasi-static compression fracture force, and other egg traits such as shell thickness were very high (ranging from.92 to.95), much as structural theory would suggest. However, although the relationships within species were generally consistent across species, they were clearly different from those among species, with the correlations (from –.09 to .44) and the regression slopes markedly lower. Furthermore, the regression of nondestructive deformation on shell thickness showed a negative slope within species and a positive slope among species. Apparently the factors which introduce variation in shell strength over the wide range of egg mass across species need not be the same as those operating within the restricted range of a specific species.

Effects of the Sequence of Measuring Nondestructive Deformation and Specific Gravity on the Quasi-Static Compression and Impact Strength of Eggs from White Leghorn Hens

Two experiments were done to determine if the types of shell measurement and the order in which they were obtained could influence the egg shell strength results. All possible sequences involving specific gravity (SG) and/or nondestructive deformation (or neither) followed by a destructive test, impact or quasi-static compression fracture, were considered. Each of the 10 sequences was applied to 45 eggs in each of two experiments. Both impact and compression fracture showed significant differences (P<.01) among sequences, mainly because sequences involving deformation generally produced lower fracture measurements. There was no evidence that SG influenced subsequent measurements nor that it was affected by previous deformation measurements. The results were generally consistent across the two experiments.

Shell Strength Changes by Three Hours After Oviposition and Influence of Polyurethane Foam Covered Cage Floors ,

This study was conducted to determine whether shell strength changed from 3 min to 3 hr after oviposition and whether shell strength of an egg was influenced by polyurethane foam placed on the cage floor to reduce impact at oviposition. Shell strength measurements included specific gravity (SG) by Archimedes’ principle, nondestructive deformation (DFM), quasistatic compression fracture (CFS), and shell thickness.Using shell thickness as a covariate and comparing treatments on a within bird basis, it was found that from 3 min to 3 hr after oviposition CFS increased (P<.01) while DFM tended to decrease (P>.05). The SG was unchanged when values were corrected to a constant temperature. Using regression coefficients of CFS on temperature published previously, it was shown that much of the increased CFS could be explained by a decrease in temperature of the egg. Although additional factors may be involved, it was concluded that resistance to shell fracture was lower at oviposition than 3 hr later.There was no consistent increase in CFS and no change in DFM of egg shells when polyurethane foam was used to reduce the impact of the egg on the cage floor.

The Effects of Storage Duration on Nondestructive Deformation, Quasi-Static Compression Strength, Impact Fracture Strength, and Specific Gravity of Eggs from White Leghorn Hens

Three experiments were done to determine the effects of storage duration on egg shell strength. Groups of 30 to 48 eggs were stored in air in vinyl plastic bags at 10 C for up to 21 days after oviposition. Quasi-static compression fracture force, specific gravity (SG), and egg weight in air and in water tended to decrease with time, while impact fracture force tended to increase. These trends were consistent across experiments. Nondestructive deformation, however, appeared to decrease in one experiment and increase in another. The SG was lower when measured by the flotation procedure than by Archimedes’ principle. Because egg weight changed at the same rate in air and in water, the decrease in SG can be attributed to the loss in weight. The changes in compression and impact fracture strength of the eggs indicated that material and structural properties of the shell were influenced by the length of storage.

Effects of Sodium Plus Potassium to Chloride Ratio in Practical-Type Diets on Blood Gas Levels in Three Strains of White Leghorn Hens and the Relationship Between Acid-Base Balance and Egg Shell Strength ,

A 3 × 6 factorial experiment involving three strains of Single Comb White Leghorn hens and six dietary ratios of sodium plus potassium to chloride ((Na + K)/C1) of .40, .91, 1.92, 2.83, 4.04, and 7.69 was done with 108 individually caged hens. The six corn-soybean meal-brewers’ dried grains diets included comparisons among low and high levels of sodium and chloride. Feed and distilled water were provided ad libitum from 403 to 487 days of age. Egg and shell measurements were taken on eggs laid between 479 and 483 days. At the completion of the experiment, blood pH and gases (pCO2, pO2) and plasma Na, K, Cl, Ca, P, and Mg were measured for each hen. Blood bicarbonate was calculated from the pH and pCO2 values. Much of the variation in blood gas levels and 485-day body weight could be attributed to the effects of the .40 diet. The effects of dietary sodium and chloride levels appeared independent of each other with decreasing levels of sodium and increasing levels of chloride reducing blood pH, pCO2, and bicarbonate; these ions had the reverse effect on plasma K. Significant differences in feed intake, feed efficiency, and egg production were apparently due to extremely poor performance of birds fed the .40 diet. Differences among strains were significant for feed intake, productivity, egg and shell weight, percent shell, shell weight per unit surface area, and egg specific gravity but were not significant for blood gas and plasma inorganic ion levels, nondestructive deformation, compression fracture force, and interior quality. Increasing dietary chloride levels significantly reduced deformation and fracture force. There were few dietary (Na + K)/Cl ratio × strain interactions. Partial correlation coefficients indicated very weak relationships (r = −.19 to .14) between blood pH or bicarbonate and specific gravity, deformation, or fracture force. The results of this experiment indicate that although the acid-base balance of laying hens was influenced by the (Na + K)/Cl ratio of the diet, there was no relationship between acid-base balance and egg shell strength.

The Effects of Dietary Phosphorus, Vitamin D3, and 25-Hydroxy Vitamin D3 Levels on Feed Intake, Productive Performance, and Egg and Shell Quality in Two Strains of Force-Molted White Leghorns

A total of 576 force-molted hens were used to investigate the effect of dietary phosphorus level, and the source and level of vitamin D3 on egg production and shell quality. The experiment was a 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design with two strains of hens, two levels of available phosphorus (.34 and .60%), and two sources of D3 (25-hydroxy vitamin D3 and vitamin D3) at three levels (8, 16, 24 μg/kg); the diets were provided ad libitum for 84 days (from 646 to 730 days of age). Egg and shell quality measurements were taken on eggs laid over a 4-day period when the hens were 727 days of age. Dietary phosphorus level, and D3 source and level had no significant (P>.05) effect on 730-day body weight, feed intake and efficiency, egg production and yield, shell weight, percent shell, shell weight per unit surface area, Haugh units, blood spots, egg specific gravity, nondestructive deformation, compression fracture force, and shell thickness. There were significant differences among strains for the aforementioned variables except feed intake, egg weight, Haugh units, and blood spot incidence. Few interactions were found between the main effects. Results indicate that no improvement in shell quality of eggs from force-molted hens was obtained by decreasing the level of phosphorus or substituting 25-hydroxy vitamin D3 for vitamin D3 in the diet.

The Effects of Age and Strain on the Relationships between Destructive and Non-Destructive Measurements of Eggshell Strength for White Leghorn Hens

Specific gravity, egg and shell weight, compression fracture force (SBS), and non-destructive deformation (DFM) were measured and percent shell, surface area, and shell weight per unit surface area were calculated for a total of 3868 eggs obtained from four strains of Single Comb White Leghorns when the hens were 182, 315, 364, and 497 days of age. Strain and age influenced the measured and calculated variables with SBS and DFM showing the greatest differences. Analyses of variance showed that the y-intercepts and the slopes of linear regression equations of SBS on DFM were significantly affected by strain and age. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that DFM most frequently accounted for the greatest portion of the variability in SBS. These results indicate that although non-destructive deformation is a useful predictor of shell breaking strength, the relationship is affected by strain and age of hen.

Laboratory Measurements of Eggshell Strength: 2. The Quasi-Static Compression, Puncture, Non-Destructive Deformation, and Specific Gravity Methods Applied to the Same Egg

Specific gravity, non-destructive deformation, puncture force, and compression fracture force measurements were obtained from 860 eggs collected from three flocks of Single Comb White Leghorn hens. Compression fracture and puncture force measurements indicated that tensile and shear fracture resistances of the shell material were related on a within egg basis and that the correlation between fracture shear stress and shell thickness was low. Linear relationships were found between specific gravity and both puncture force and fracture shear stress while there was an apparent curvilinear relationship between these force measurements and non-destructive deformation. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that non-destructive deformation accounted for the most variation in predicting compression fracture force (54%). It was found possible to measure puncture and compression fracture force, in that order, on the same egg. Deformation measurements obtained using horizontally applied forces closely matched those obtained with the forces applied to the egg vertically.

Laboratory Measurements of Eggshell Strength: 1. An Instrument for Measuring Shell Strength by Quasi-Static Compression, Puncture, and Non-Destructive Deformation

A new eggshell strength testing apparatus is reported that was designed to meet known requirements. The apparatus is compact, portable, and can test at least 180 eggs/hr using either the compression, puncture, or non-destructive deformation methods of measuring shell strength. The puncture or compression tests can be combined with the deformation test in one operation. The equipment operates semi-automatically using two operators, one to load and test the eggs and the second to record the data. Critical performance aspects were examined, and the results demonstrate that the apparatus applies closely controlled test conditions and that the recording equipment registers force and deformation precisely.

Observations on The Relationship Between Non-Destructive Egg Shell Deformation and Resistance to Fracture by Quasi-Static Compression for Measurement of Egg Shell Strength

Additional data are presented confirming that the relationship between shell deformation under a selected non-destructive force and the force at fracture is non-linear during quasi-static compression of eggs. The results show that the prediction of fracture force (F) from a non-destructive deformation (D) is better than that obtained from egg specific gravity or shell thickness readings. The prediction obtained was improved by logarithmic or quadratic transformations. Equations of the form: F = a – b log D and F = a – bD + cD2 accounted for 74% of the variation in shell fracture force where a, b and c are constants. Addition of specific gravity and shell thickness did not improve these predictions significantly.

Shell Evaluation of White and Brown Egg Strains by Deformation, Breaking Strength, Shell Thickness and Specific Gravity: 2. Stepwise Regression Analysis of Egg Characteristics on Methods of Assessing Shell Strength

The egg characteristics of shell thickness, specific gravity, egg weight, width/length ratio and tint of the brown shell eggs were regressed on the shell strength measurements of non-destructive deformation and breaking strength. Six commercially available laying strains (3 white egg and 3 brown egg) were used to determine differences between strains and differences between white and brown strains. Specific gravity was the most important contributor to deformation of white and brown shell eggs when non-destructive variables were considered. However, when the destructive measure of shell thickness was added to the model it became the most important contributor to deformation for the brown shell eggs, whereas specific gravity remained the most important contributor for the white shell eggs. With breaking strength as the dependent variable, the most important source of variation in Hatch 1 was thickness for the brown shell eggs and specific gravity for the white eggs. However, in Hatch 2 thickness was the most important contributor for both white and brown shell eggs. Specific gravity remained significant in the white egg strains and became insignificant in the brown egg strains. Tint did not contribute significantly to either deformation or breaking strength in the brown egg strains.