Non-consumptive Effects Of Predators Research Articles

Risky Business: Predator Chemical Cues Mediate Morphological Changes in Freshwater Snails.

Many prey organisms respond to the nonconsumptive effects of predators by altering their physiology, morphology, and behavior. These inducible defenses can create refuges for prey by decreasing the likelihood of consumption by predators. Some prey, as in marine mollusks, have been shown to alter their morphology in response to the presence of size-limited predation. To extend this work, we exposed pointed campeloma snails (Campeloma decisum) to chemical cues from a natural predator, the rusty crayfish (Faxonius rusticus), to better understand how snail morphology changes under the threat of predation. The total force needed to crush shells, total shell length, aperture width, and total weight, along with changes to these 3 body measurements, were recorded for each individual and used to quantify morphological changes as a function of risk. Snails exposed to crayfish chemical cues had shells that required significantly more force to crush their shells than controls (P=0.023). Total shell length was greater in crayfish-exposed snails than in control snails (P=0.012), and snails in the crayfish treatment also showed significantly more change in shell length than control snails (P=0.007). Similarly, aperture width was significantly greater in exposed snails (P=0.011). However, exposed snails exhibited significantly less change in aperture width than controls (P=0.03). Finally, we found that snails exposed to crayfish weighed significantly more than snails in the control (P=0.008). Thus, the results of this study show that morphology of gastropods is altered in the presence of predators, and this may be an antipredator tactic directly related to predation risk.

Rapid evolution of consumptive and non-consumptive predator effects on prey population densities, bioenergetics and stoichiometry.

Predators can strongly influence prey populations not only through consumptive effects (CE) but also through non-consumptive effects (NCE) imposed by predation risk. Yet, the impact of NCE on bioenergetic and stoichiometric body contents of prey, traits that are shaping life histories, population and food web dynamics, is largely unknown. Moreover, the degree to which NCE can evolve and can drive evolution in prey populations is rarely studied. A 6-week outdoor mesocosm experiment with Caged-Fish (NCE) and Free-Ranging-Fish (CE and NCE) treatments was conducted to quantify and compare the effects of CE and NCE on population densities, bioenergetic and stoichiometric body contents of Daphnia magna, a keystone species in freshwater ecosystems. We tested for evolution of CE and NCE by using experimental populations consisting of D. magna clones from two periods of a resurrected natural pond population: a pre-fish period without fish and a high-fish period with high predation pressure. Both Caged-Fish and Free-Ranging-Fish treatments decreased the body size and population densities, especially in Daphnia from the high-fish period. Only the Free-Ranging-Fish treatment affected bioenergetic variables, while both the Caged-Fish and Free-Ranging-Fish treatments shaped body stoichiometry. The effects of CE and NCE were different between both periods indicating their rapid evolution in the natural resurrected population. Both the Caged-Fish and Free-Ranging-Fish treatments changed the clonal frequencies of the experimental Daphnia populations of the pre-fish as well as the high-fish period, indicating that not only CE but also NCE induced clonal sorting, hence rapid evolution during the mesocosm experiment in both periods. Our results demonstrate that CE as well as NCE have the potential to change not only the body size and population density but also the bioenergetic and stoichiometric characteristics of prey populations. Moreover, we show that these responses not only evolved in the studied resurrected population, but that CE and NCE also caused differential rapid evolution in a time frame of 6 weeks (ca. four to six generations). As NCE can evolve as well as can drive evolution, they may play an important role in shaping eco-evolutionary dynamics in predator-prey interactions.

Behavioral trade-offs and multitasking by elk in relation to predation risk from Mexican gray wolves.

Predator non-consumptive effects (NCE) can alter prey foraging time and habitat use, potentially reducing fitness. Prey can mitigate NCEs by increasing vigilance, chewing-vigilance synchronization, and spatiotemporal avoidance of predators. We quantified the relationship between Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) predation risk and elk (Cervus canadensis) behavior. We conducted behavioral observations on adult female elk and developed predation risk indices using GPS collar data from Mexican wolves, locations of elk killed by wolves, and landscape covariates. We compared a priori models to determine the best predictors of adult female behavior and multitasking. Metrics that quantified both spatial and temporal predation risk were the most predictive. Vigilance was positively associated with increased predation risk. The effect of predation risk on foraging and resting differed across diurnal periods. During midday when wolf activity was lower, the probability of foraging increased while resting decreased in high-risk areas. During crepuscular periods when elk and wolves were most active, increased predation risk was associated with increased vigilance and slight decreases in foraging. Our results suggest elk are temporally avoiding predation risk from Mexican wolves by trading resting for foraging, a trade-off often not evaluated in behavioral studies. Probability of multitasking depended on canopy openness and an interaction between maternal period and predation risk; multitasking decreased prior to parturition and increased post parturition in high-risk areas. Openness was inversely related to multitasking. These results suggest adult female elk are altering the type of vigilance used depending on resource availability/quality, current energetic needs, and predation risk. Our results highlight potentially important, but often-excluded behaviors and trade-offs prey species may use to reduce the indirect effects of predation and contribute additional context to our understanding of predator-prey dynamics.

Dangerous neighbours: Birds and bird-eating bats sharing tree cavities.

Mounting evidence indicates the non-consumptive effects of predators significantly impact prey physiology, ecology and behaviour. Passerine birds experience adverse effects on nesting and reproductive success when in proximity to predators. Fear of predators is context-dependent and influenced by hunting habitats and foraging strategies. While some bat species prey on birds, the greater noctule (Nyctalus lasiopterus) stands out by specialising in avian prey, especially during peak bird migration. N. lasiopterus is thought to seize avian prey in flight, but direct evidence is lacking. If birds were taken from nests, they would likely avoid nesting near these bats. However, no observations support this view. This study documents the successful reproduction of Eurasian blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) nesting alongside a colony of approximately 25 greater noctules. This bird species is a prey species for greater noctules in Italy. Over about 1 month (April-May 2023), we observed parent birds provisioning food to chicks, with at least two chicks alive and fed outside the tree cavity by the end of the period. While acknowledging the limitations of a single observation, we propose that this previously unknown behaviour indirectly supports the idea that greater noctules only capture avian prey in flight, not within confined spaces. This observation challenges the perception that these bats pose a threat when sharing roosting spaces in trees, as evidenced in our observed case. We hope this novel observation inspires future research on variations in bird nesting behaviour and reproductive success in the presence of bird-eating bats, as well as an assessment of the long-term impact on population dynamics and reproductive success of nesting birds sharing such roosting spaces.

Microgeographic differentiation in thermal and antipredator responses and their carry-over effects across life stages in a damselfly.

Global warming and invasive species, separately or combined, can impose a large impact on the condition of native species. However, we know relatively little about how these two factors, individually and in combination, shape phenotypes in ectotherms across life stages and how this can differ between populations. We investigated the non-consumptive predator effects (NCEs) imposed by native (perch) and invasive (signal crayfish) predators experienced only during the egg stage or during both the egg and larval stages in combination with warming on adult life history traits of the damselfly Ischnura elegans. To explore microgeographic differentiation, we compared two nearby populations differing in thermal conditions and predator history. In the absence of predator cues, warming positively affected damselfly survival, possibly because the warmer temperature was closer to the optimal temperature. In the presence of predator cues, warming decreased survival, indicating a synergistic effect of these two variables on survival. In one population, predator cues from perch led to increased survival, especially under the current temperature, likely because of predator stress acclimation phenomena. While warming decreased, predator cues increased larval development time with a proportionally stronger effect of signal crayfish cues experienced during the egg stage, indicating a negative carry-over effect from egg to larva. Warming and predator cues increased mass at emergence, with the predator effect driven mainly by exposure to signal crayfish cues during the egg stage, indicating a positive carry-over effect from egg to adult. Notably, warming and predator effects were not consistent across the two studied populations, suggesting a phenotypic signal of adaptation at a microgeographic scale to thermal conditions and predator history. We also observed pronounced shifts during ontogeny from synergistic (egg and early larval stage) toward additive (late larval stage up to emergence) effects between warming and predator stress. The results point out that population- and life-stage-specific responses in life-history traits to NCEs are needed to predict fitness consequences of exposure to native and invasive predators and warming in prey at a microgeographic scale.

Nonconsumptive effects of black sea bass (Centropristis striata) on a crustacean mesopredator and the indirect effects on bivalve survival

The consumptive and nonconsumptive effects of predators on their prey and the indirect effects of these interactions that cascade through food webs have been studied for over half a century. In the northwest Atlantic, the stock of black sea bass (Centropristis striata) steeply declined during the 1980s. While population crashes of fished bivalve species coincided with those of black sea bass, the role of black sea bass in driving trophic cascades that indirectly influence bivalve survival has largely been overlooked. Over the past decade, black sea bass have not only been recovering in abundance but warming water temperatures have been driving a northward expansion of the extent of their seasonal migration, resulting in a particularly strong relative recovery along the south shore of Long Island, New York. To explore whether black sea bass alter the foraging rates of mud crabs (Dyspanopeus sayi) on a species of bivalve, blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), we manipulated the presence and position of sea bass within an array of mesocosm tanks. We found that the presence of black sea bass reduced the proportion of blue mussels consumed by mud crabs. Black sea bass presence indirectly elevated blue mussel survival by as much as 47.7% by reducing mud crab per capita consumption of blue mussels by 57.9%. However, there were limitations to the nonconsumptive effects of black sea bass that appeared to depend on their proximity to mud crabs. While our results are from an experimental setup with a simplified food chain and are context dependent, they emphasize the importance of studying how nonconsumptive effects of specific marine predators influence trophic cascades from both conceptual and applied coastal resource management standpoints. Our results suggest that the recovery of black sea bass may bode well for the population restoration of several species of bivalves within estuaries throughout their range. Further, our study provides evidence that indicates that the nonconsumptive effects of a recovering marine predator can indirectly elevate the survival of a basal food resource species.

Predation risk by largemouth bass modulates feeding functional responses of native and non-native crayfish

Context-dependency is prevalent in nature, challenging our understanding and prediction of the potential ecological impacts of non-native species (NNS). The presence of a top predator, for example, can modify the foraging behaviour of an intermediate consumer, by means of non-consumptive effects. This raises the question of whether the fear of predation might modulate consumption rates of NNS, thus shaping the magnitude of ecological impacts. Here, we quantified the functional feeding responses of three non-native crayfish species – red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii, rusty crayfish Faxonius rusticus and virile crayfish Faxonius virilis – compared to the native analogue signal crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus, considering the predation risk imposed by a top fish predator, the globally invasive largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides. We applied the comparative functional response (FR) approach using snails as prey and exposing crayfish to water containing predator and dietary chemical cues or not. All crayfish species presented a destabilising Type II FR, regardless of the presence of chemical cues. Predation risk resulted in significantly longer handling times or lower attack rates in non-native crayfish; however, no significant differences were observed in signal crayfish. We estimated per capita impacts for each species using the functional response ratio (FRR; attack rate divided by handling time). The FRR metric was lower for all crayfish species when exposed to predation risk. Rusty crayfish demonstrated the highest FRR in the absence of chemical cues, followed by signal crayfish, virile crayfish and red swamp crayfish. By contrast, the FRR of signal crayfish was nearly twice that of rusty crayfish and virile crayfish and ten times greater than red swamp crayfish when chemical cues were present. The latter result agrees with the well-recognised ecological impacts of signal crayfish throughout its globally-introduced range. This study demonstrates the importance of considering the non-consumptive effects of predators when quantifying the ecological impacts of intermediate non-native consumers on prey. The direction and magnitude of the modulating effects of predators have clear implications for our understanding of NNS impacts and the prioritisation of management actions.

Freshwater salinization reduces vertical movement rate and abundance of Daphnia: Interactions with predatory stress

Contaminants in human-dominated landscapes are changing ecological interactions. The global increase in freshwater salinity is likely to change predator-prey interactions due to the potential interactive effects between predatory stress and salt stress. We conducted two experiments to assess the interactions between the non-consumptive effects of predation and elevated salinity on the abundance and vertical movement rate of a common lake zooplankton species (Daphnia mendotae). Our results revealed an antagonism rather than a synergism between predatory stress and salinity on zooplankton abundance. Elevated salinity and predator cues triggered a >50% reduction in abundance at salt concentrations of 230 and 860 mg Cl−/L, two thresholds designed to protect freshwater organisms from chronic and acute effects due to salt pollution. We found a masking effect between salinity and predation on vertical movement rate of zooplankton. Elevated salinity reduced zooplankton vertical movement rate by 22–47%. A longer exposure history only magnified the reduction in vertical movement rate when compared to naïve individuals (no prior salinity exposure). Downward movement rate under the influence of predatory stress in elevated salinity was similar to the control, which may enhance the energetic costs of predator avoidance in salinized ecosystems. Our results suggest antagonistic and masking effects between elevated salinity and predatory stress will have consequences for fish-zooplankton interactions in salinized lakes. Elevated salinity could impose additional energetic constraints on zooplankton predator avoidance behaviors and vertical migration, which may reduce zooplankton population size and community interactions supporting the functioning of lake ecosystems.

Effects of predation risks of bats on the growth, development, reproduction, and hormone levels of Spodoptera litura

Predation is a powerful selection pressure that shapes predator–prey interactions. Due to long-term interactions, moths have developed hearing to detect the echolocation calls of bats. This allows bats to impose the non-consumptive effects of predation on moths. However, information on the changes in the growth, development, reproduction, and hormones of moths that are vulnerable to bat predation is limited. In this study, we used Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to determine the effects of the predation risks of bats on their growth, development, reproduction, and hormone titers. Our results showed that the larvae of S. litura increased food intake, accelerated the development of the larval stages, increased mortality and metamorphosis failure, and had a smaller body size under the risk of predation by bats. Additionally, the reproductive activity and fecundity decreased in the adults of S. litura, but the juvenile hormone titers and 20-Ecdydysone hormone titers increased. These results suggested an adaptive response in S. litura under bat predation risks at the cost of lower survival and reproduction. Finally, we found that S. litura moths showed different responses to different predation risk cues, which suggested that they might assess the magnitude of different predation risks to make the most suitable decision for survival and reproduction. Our results highlight the importance of the predation risk imposed by bats to negatively regulate the population dynamics of moths. Our findings indicated that the biological control of bugs using bats is a promising strategy.

Nonconsumptive Effects of Crustaceans and an Echinoderm on Spat of the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791)

Predation by crustaceans and echinoderms is a significant driver of mortality for sessile invertebrates in near-shore marine ecosystems. As a response, shellfish growers use predator exclusion cages to grow their product. Oysters grown in these cages and clams in and under nets have been observed to exhibit thinner, brittle shells, which is not optimal for market, nor for those being grown for restoration purposes. Here, the nonconsumptive predator effects of several native and nonnative predators on shell morphology of Crassostrea virginica oyster spat. Juvenile (1–3 mm) seed oysters were exposed separately to chemical cues of five different predators and one nonpredator crab were investigated and compared with control (no exposure) spat. Significant effects of predator presence on the total wet weight (g) of the spat was demonstrated, with the highest increase for spat exposed to black-fingered mud crabs (Panopeus, 1.70 mg d–1) and the biggest decreases for spat exposed to the European green crabs (Carcinus maenas—1.34 mg d–1) and the sea stars (Asterias rubens—1.47 mg d–1). Changes to oyster length (mm) and shell density (crushing resistance) were not significant. Implications for aquaculturists and wild bivalve populations are that growth could be negatively affected by the lack of predators on these important organisms.

Predation risk affects the ecotoxicity evaluation of antibiotics: Population growth and antioxidase activity in the ciliate Paramecium jenningsi

Although predation risk exists under natural conditions, its role is usually ignored when evaluating the ecotoxicity of environmental contaminants, and the interaction between predation risk and antibiotic ecotoxicity is not yet clear. To investigate the nonconsumptive effects (NCEs) of predation on the ecotoxicity evaluation of antibiotics, the median lethal concentration (LC50), relative population growth rate (RGR), and activities of three antioxidases were measured in the ciliate Paramecium jenningsi exposed to graded concentrations of the antibiotics nitrofurazone (NFZ) or erythromycin (ERY) in the presence or absence of a predator, i.e., the ciliate Didinium nasutum. The results showed that (1) NCEs significantly reduced the LC50 of NFZ but had no effect on that of ERY; (2) predation pressure alone had no significant effect on the inhibitory rate of the P. jenningsi population, but the interaction with NFZ was synergistic, while that with CRY was additive; (3) the concentrationresponse (i.e., mortality) model for each antibiotic exposure with and without predation pressure differed significantly in the parameter slope; (4) RGRs were significantly reduced by antibiotic exposure or NCEs; only in NFZ-exposed groups did the RGRs decrease linearly with increasing exposure concentration; and (5) the activities of all three antioxidases significantly increased due to NCEs or following exposure to antibiotics. In brief, NCEs were detected in P. jenningsi, and these had additive or synergistic effects on antibiotic ecotoxicity, but their magnitude depended on the properties and exposure concentrations of the antibiotics. Our findings suggest that it is necessary to consider the roles of NCEs in the ecotoxicity evaluation of environmental contaminants.

Dosage-dependent and prey stage-specific non-consumptive effects of predators on prey: interactions between Neoseiulus cucumeris and Tyrophagus putrescentiae

Predators can affect prey both directly through consumption and indirectly through non-consumptive effects such as predation risk. The latter has been less studied than consumptive effects in predator-prey interactions, although many studies have shown that non-consumptive effects could significantly affect various life history traits of the prey (Clinchy et al. 2013; Gurr et al. 2017; Hawlena & Schmitz 2010; Hermann & Thaler 2014; McCauley et al. 2011; Peckarsky et al. 2002; Skelhorn et al. 2011; Stoks 2001; Zanette et al. 2011), such as development, reproduction and lifespan in mite prey-predator systems (Choh & Takabayashi 2010; Freinschlag & Schausberger 2016; Grostal & Dicke 1999; Li & Zhang 2019; Ristyadi et al. 2022; Škaloudová et al. 2007; Wei & Zhang 2019, 2022). Most published studies examined the short-term effects of predation risk on prey immature development, reproduction and behaviour (e.g. Abrams & Rowe 1996; Choh et al. 2010; Majchrzak et al. 2022; Oku et al. 2003; Oliveira & Moraes 2021; Rocha et al. 2020; Saavedra et al. 2022; Warkentin 1995). In this study, we examined the effects of predation risk on short-term as well as long-term traits such as fecundity and lifespan. In addition, we also compared the effects of exposure to predation risks for long versus short duration.

Predation stress experienced as immature mites extends their lifespan

The early-life experience is important in modulating the late-life performance of individuals. It has been predicted that there were trade-offs between early-life fitness and late-life success. Most of the studies on senescence have focused on the trade-offs between the reproduction and lifespan, and the influences of diet, mating, and other factors. Because the negative, non-consumptive effects of predators could also modulate the behaviour and underlying mechanisms of the prey, this study aimed to examine the different effects of predator-induced stress experienced in the early life compared with later life of the prey. The prey (Tyrophagus putrescentiae) was exposed to predation stress from the predator (Neoseiulus cucumeris) during different periods of its life (immature, oviposition period, and post-oviposition period). The results showed that the predation stress experienced during immature stages delayed development by 7.3% and prolonged lifespan by 9.7%, while predation stress experienced in the adult stage (both oviposition and post-oviposition periods) decreased lifespans of T. putrescentiae (by 24.8% and 28.7%, respectively). Predation stress experienced during immature stages also reduced female fecundity by 7.3%, whereas that experienced during the oviposition period reduced fecundity of the prey by 50.7%. This study demonstrated for the first time lifespan extension by exposure to predation stress when young and highlighted the importance of early-life experience to aging and lifespan.

Differential effects of warming and acidification on chemosensory transmission and detection may strengthen non-consumptive effects of blue crab predators (Callinectes sapidus) on mud crab prey (Panopeus herbstii)

Predators control prey abundance and behavior, both of which strongly influence community dynamics. However, the relative importance of these predator effects may shift with climate change stressors, suggesting understanding the potential effects on these different processes is critical to predicting effects of climate change on community function. We investigated the effects of global warming and ocean acidification on the transmission and detection of chemical cues from blue crab predators (Callinectes sapidus) by mud crab prey (Panopeus herbstii). We measured mud crab feeding rates in the presence of blue crab predator cues, using either predator cues stressed in acidified conditions or mud crabs stressed in warmed and acidified conditions. Mud crabs consumed less food in the presence of predator cues, but acidifying the cues or subjecting mud crabs receiving the cues to acidified environment did not affect this antipredator response. Mud crabs in warmed conditions consumed significantly less food regardless of predator cue, but this effect was reversed in ambient conditions. Therefore, climate change may produce shifts in community regulation as warming potentially compromises consumptive effects of predators by reducing motor function, whereas non-consumptive effects mediated by sensory transmission and detection remain unaffected by acidification. Overall, warming may have stronger effects than acidification on community dynamics in oyster reefs as global temperatures continue to rise.

Level-dependent effects of predation stress on prey development, lifespan and reproduction in mites

In predator–prey interactions, non-consumptive effects of predators have been less studied than consumptive effects. However, non-consumptive effects may have significant influences on prey and can change different aspects of their life history such as development, reproduction and lifespan. The odour and other cues associated with a predator, without direct contact, could induce stress in prey, leading to phenotypic changes in life history traits. In this study, we investigate how mild and strong predator-induced stress could affect prey life history. The prey (Tyrophagus putrescentiae) was exposed, from hatching to death, to three different levels of predation stress from its predator (Neoseiulus cucumeris) (1, 3 or 5 predator adults in an adjacent cage separated by a mesh screen). Compared with the control, both males and females under predator-induced stress had longer developmental time and shorter lifespan when the level of predation stress increased, showing significant level-dependence. In addition, females had reduced fecundity under predation stress. Sex-specific response to predation stress was observed under a low level of predation stress: females had greater reduction in lifespan than males. Furthermore, the reduction in female lifespan was due more from the decrease in the post-oviposition period than the decrease in the oviposition period. Future studies applying even milder levels of predation press, such as exposure of prey to predator cues only during part of the prey lifespan, may provide additional insights.

Beyond body size-new traits for new heights in trait-based modelling of predator-prey dynamics.

Food webs map feeding interactions among species, providing a valuable tool for understanding and predicting community dynamics. Using species’ body sizes is a promising avenue for parameterizing food-web models, but such approaches have not yet been able to fully recover observed community dynamics. Such discrepancies suggest that traits other than body size also play important roles. For example, differences in species’ use of microhabitat or non-consumptive effects of intraguild predators may affect dynamics in ways not captured by body size. In Laubmeier et al. (2018), we developed a dynamic food-web model incorporating microhabitat and non-consumptive predator effects in addition to body size, and used simulations to suggest an optimal sampling design of a mesocosm experiment to test the model. Here, we perform the mesocosm experiment to generate empirical time-series of insect herbivore and predator abundance dynamics. We minimize least squares error between the model and time-series to determine parameter values of four alternative models, which differ in terms of including vs excluding microhabitat use and non-consumptive predator-predator effects. We use both statistical and expert-knowledge criteria to compare the models and find including both microhabitat use and non-consumptive predator-predator effects best explains observed aphid and predator population dynamics, followed by the model including microhabitat alone. This ranking suggests that microhabitat plays a larger role in driving population dynamics than non-consumptive predator-predator effects, although both are clearly important. Our results illustrate the importance of additional traits alongside body size in driving trophic interactions. They also point to the need to consider trophic interactions and population dynamics in a wider community context, where non-trophic impacts can dramatically modify the interplay between multiple predators and prey. Overall, we demonstrate the potential for utilizing traits beyond body size to improve trait-based models and the value of iterative cycling between theory, data and experiment to hone current insights into how traits affect food-web dynamics.

Prey naiveté alters the balance of consumptive and non‐consumptive predator effects and shapes trophic cascades in freshwater plankton

Predators drive trophic cascades by reducing prey biomass and altering prey traits, selecting for prey that exhibit constitutive and induced anti‐predator defenses that decrease susceptibility to consumption. These defense traits are often costly, generating a tradeoff between consumptive (CEs) and non‐consumptive predator effects (NCEs). The ecological and evolutionary experience that prey share with a given predator may determine their position along this tradeoff curve, affecting the nature and strength of top–down control of ecosystems. Conceptual models predict that predator‐experienced prey suffer greater NCEs than predator–naive prey, which suffer stronger CEs and total predator effects (CEs + NCEs), but this has not been tested in diverse prey communities. We tested these predictions by comparing the effects of predation (CEs + NCEs) and predation risk (NCEs only) of planktivorous fish on food web structure in pond mesocosms with diverse natural communities of either predator‐naive or predator‐experienced zooplankton. Contrary to expectations, top–down control of zooplankton and phytoplankton biomass was strengthened by prey community experience: in systems with experienced relative to naive zooplankton communities both predation risk (NCEs only) and predation (CEs + NCEs) had stronger effects on zooplankton prey biomass and trophic cascades were twice as strong. These results show that the ecological and evolutionary experience of diverse prey communities alters the balance of consumptive and non‐consumptive predator effects and influences trophic cascade strength.

Non-consumptive effects of intraguild predator Blattisocius dentriticus (Berlese) on the development and prey consumption of Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oudemans)

Predator-prey interactions are fundamental to the understanding of ecological communities. The non-consumptive effects of predators on the food web can be more prominent than direct killing. However, the non-consumptive effects in intraguild interaction have rarely been studied. This study determined the non-consumptive effects of an intraguild predator Blattisocius dentriticus on Neoseiulus cucumeris. The responses of N. cucumeris to the predation risk of B. dentriticus adult females were examined in a laboratory test. The developmental response of N. cucumeris to predation risk was sex-specific: the presence of B. dentriticus cues prolonged the immature development of N. cucumeris males and increased their consumption rates of Tyrophagus putrescentiae eggs, but did not affect the development and prey consumption of female N. cucumeris. The size at maturity of N. cucumeris was not affected by predation risk from B. dentriticus. This study demonstrated that intraguild predators can have substantial non-consumptive influence on intraguild prey.

Assessment of Non-Consumptive Predation Risk of Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on the Population Growth of Sitobion miscanthi (Hemiptera: Aphididae).

Simple SummaryChanges in prey biology driven by predation threats that do not involve direct consumption are referred to as non-consumptive effects (NCEs). In general, NCEs are considered common and can affect herbivores sometimes stronger than the direct consumptive effects. However, how the NCEs of predators affect the development, survival, fecundity, and population growth of prey has not been well documented, which is the primary consideration for the compatibility of prey with its natural enemies in agricultural ecosystems. We examined the NCEs of the predator Coccinella septempunctata on the life-history traits and population growth of Sitobion miscanthi via caged predator (i.e., S. miscanthi co-existed with caged C. septempunctata) and caged prey (i.e., C. septempunctata co-existed with caged S. miscanthi) treatments by employing the age-stage, two-sex life table. The findings indicate that S. miscanthi could respond to the predation risk of caged predators by either accelerating the developmental rate or reducing the net reproductive rate, while S. miscanthi might reduce their fitness in response to the predation risk of caged prey. Furthermore, S. miscanthi might also increase the number of winged morphs under both of the above treatments. The results have practical ramifications on managing this economically important pest on wheat production with reduced insecticide applications.How the non-consumptive effects (NCEs) of predators influence the development, survival, fecundity, and population growth of prey has not been well documented, which is the primary consideration for the compatibility of prey with its natural enemies in agricultural ecosystems. We herein employed the age-stage, two-sex life table to examine the NCEs of the predator Coccinella septempunctata on the life-history traits and population growth of prey Sitobion miscanthi via caged predator (prey co-existing with caged predator) and caged prey (predator co-existing with caged prey) treatments with daily different exposure times (i.e., 0 h (control), 12 h, and 24 h). The results indicated that the predation risk of a caged predator could reduce the first nymphal duration and net reproductive rate (R0) of S. miscanthi at 12 h, and the first nymphal duration, preadult duration, and mean generation time (T) at 24 h. However, the predation risk of the caged prey resulted in the prolongation of the pre-adult development time and total pre-reproductive period (TPRP) as well as lowered the intrinsic rate of increase (r), finite rate of increase (𝜆), R0, life expectancy, and reproductive value of S. miscanthi after both 12 h and 24 h. Furthermore, the predation risk of both the caged predator and caged prey could increase the percent of winged morph at 24 h. These findings indicate that S. miscanthi could respond to the predation risk of the caged predator by either accelerating the developmental rate or reducing the net reproductive rate, while S. miscanthi might reduce their fitness in response to the predation risk of caged prey. Furthermore, S. miscanthi might also alter to winged morphs for dispersal under both of the above treatments. The findings obtained have practical ramifications for managing this economically important pest in wheat production with reduced insecticide applications.

On the importance of concomitant conditions: Light and conspecific presence modulate prey response to predation cue.

Assessment of individual costs of the anti-predator defence translating into changes in population parameters is meagre. This is because prey responses are likely to be modulated by additional factors, commonly present in the environment, but often neglected in experimental studies. To evaluate the effect of external factors on prey behavior and physiology, we exposed amphipods Dikerogammarus villosus and Gammarus jazdzewskii to the predation cue of Perca fluviatilis in different densities and light conditions. Singletons of both species exposed to the predation cue in light modified their oxygen consumption (D. villosus: reduction, G. jadzewskii: increase) compared to their respiration in predator-free conditions. However, in the presence of conspecifics or in darkness, their respiration became insensitive to the predation cue. On the other hand, the swimming activity of prey was reduced in the presence of the predation cue irrespective of prey density and light conditions, but singletons were consistently more active than groups. Thus, external factors, such as conspecifics and darkness, constantly or periodically occurring in the field, may reduce the costs of predator non-consumptive effects compared to the costs measured under laboratory conditions (in light or absence of conspecifics). Moreover, we showed that behavioral and physiological parameters of prey may change differently in response to predation risk. Thus, conclusions drawn on the basis of single defence mechanisms and/or results obtained in artificial conditions, not reflecting the environmental complexity, strongly depend on the experimental design and endpoint selection and therefore should be treated with care.