Nomadic Groups Research Articles

Tamga Signs on a Silver Vessel from Yustyd (South Altai)

The author for the first time reproduces and interprets the tamga-like and other signs on the silver vessel, found by V.D. Kubarev in 1976 in the early medieval memorial enclosure in the valley of the river Yustyd in the South Altai. In all 12 signs were carved on the vessel, half of them make two groups. One of them includes the tamgas of the Ashina dynasty Turks-togyu in the form of a goat figure, the other is the Karluk tamgas shaped as an acute angle. Other tamgas probably belonged to Tiele tribes. The sign, carved on the base of the Yustyd vessel, resembles a runic letter (nč), the most likely interpretation of it is the name of the vessel’s owner – Ench. The tamgas of Karluks and Ashina Türk dynasty on the silver mug from Yustyd could be a symbol of the contracting an alliance and/or a system of suzerainty-vassalage of these two the large Turkic-speaking nomadic groups between each other in the period of the Second Turkic Khaganate. Based on the historical events known from written sources, the author dates back to 682–710 both the Yustyd complex and the tamgas, carved on the vessel.

From Heretical Beggars to Protestant Organizers: The Reception of the Reformation by the Waldensians

This article takes up the question of how the Poor Waldensians of Lyon, a predecessor of the medieval Franciscan movement, managed to become one of the main Reformed ecclesiastical bodies starting from the sixteenth century. The Italian Waldensians are an interesting ecclesiological case since during the time of the Protestant Reformation they underwent a significant transformation, from a nomadic and sectarian heterodox group to an ordered Reformed church body inserted within the broader international network of Reformed churches. This meant their survival through the support of Protestant diplomacy and public opinion, opening a door for Protestantism in the stronghold of Roman Catholicism. Their ideological move was not without changes on many ecclesiological points (Scriptures, sacraments, justification, etc.), in addition to the abandonment of their former pauperistic roots. The study shows how struggling religious minorities can at times undergo essential changes in order to guarantee their survival.

Xianbei Zoomorphic Plaques: Art, Migration, and Human-Environment Entanglement

This paper adopts an ecological perspective to investigate the visual and material remains associated with the Xianbei people, a nomadic group active in Northeast Asia from the turn of the common era to the early medieval period. Through the study of metal plaques bearing animal motifs and the environmental contexts of these artworks, I articulate the entangled relationship between humans, animals, and nature. More specifically, this research highlights three groups of zoomorphic designs, including the deer, the horse, and the human–animal juxtaposition. By investigating the stylistic changes and geographical distributions of these three types of zoomorphic metal plaques, I analyze the various roles that animals played in the Xianbei society and the different ways in which the Xianbei people engaged with animals. The shifting relationship between humans and animals as reflected in the zoomorphic metal plaques, I argue, likely resulted from the changing environment of the Xianbei people as they migrated from the Greater Khingan Range to the southern Mongolian Steppe and, finally, to North China. At various stages of their migration, the Xianbei people conducted different modes of living, ranging from hunting, pastoral nomadism, to a sedentary lifestyle, which significantly shaped the design of their zoomorphic metal plaques.

Kochevnichestvo i zony vzaimodejstviya (na primere dosovetskih kyrgyzskih kochevnikov)

This paper re-conceptualizes the four-seasonal cycling tradition of pre-Soviet Kyrgyz pastoralism, reconsidering the existing archival and oral materials. It argues that the summer quarters (zhailoo) in nomadic cycling were “core contact zones” for whole clan-based Kyrgyz community in pre-Soviet time whereas, the other winter, spring and autumn quarters remained in the margins. In addition, since all small and large nomadic groups from different regions were interacting in summer quarter, practicing the common language, ceremonies and traditions, this quarter also was preventing the emergence of different languages or dialects, social and cultural differences among Kyrgyz nomadic groups.

Проблема возникновения кочевого скотоводства в работах М.П. Грязнова

Mikhail Petrovich Gryaznov is one of the scientists whose range of scientific interests has never been limited to one topic. His work in the early 1930s as part of the History of nomadic pastoralism group to a large extent determined the direction of his activities in the future. It is important that by the beginning of the 1930s M.P. Gryaznov accumulated significant and diverse experience in field and office research, which allowed him to outline a solution to the problem of the emergence and development of nomadic pastoralism based on a synthesis of archaeological and written sources and to propose one of the first programs in Soviet archaeology to study the history of early nomads. This article is devoted to the contribution of M.P. Gryaznov in the study of the problem of the emergence and development of nomadic pastoralism. The work also used information from unpublished or poorly studied sources.

Kazak mitochondrial genomes provide insights into the human population history of Central Eurasia.

As a historical nomadic group in Central Asia, Kazaks have mainly inhabited the steppe zone from the Altay Mountains in the East to the Caspian Sea in the West. Fine scale characterization of the genetic profile and population structure of Kazaks would be invaluable for understanding their population history and modeling prehistoric human expansions across the Eurasian steppes. With this mind, we characterized the maternal lineages of 200 Kazaks from Jetisuu at mitochondrial genome level. Our results reveal that Jetisuu Kazaks have unique mtDNA haplotypes including those belonging to the basal branches of both West Eurasian (R0, H, HV) and East Eurasian (A, B, C, D) lineages. The great diversity observed in their maternal lineages may reflect pivotal geographic location of Kazaks in Eurasia and implies a complex history for this population. Comparative analyses of mitochondrial genomes of human populations in Central Eurasia reveal a common maternal genetic ancestry for Turko-Mongolian speakers and their expansion being responsible for the presence of East Eurasian maternal lineages in Central Eurasia. Our analyses further indicate maternal genetic affinity between the Sherpas from the Tibetan Plateau with the Turko-Mongolian speakers.

Depopulation of the Northern Border of Mesoamerica during the Early Postclassic: Evidence from the Reappraisal of Archaeomagnetic Data

The Mesoamerican Postclassic and Epiclassic were periods of drastic change and transformation related to social, political and economic aspects as well as settlement patterns. Mexico’s northern boundary expansion, rise, and subsequent demise is a matter of debate which remains essentially unsolved. Possible causes include climatic changes, landscape degradation or prolonged bellicose relations with nomadic groups. Still, no consensus exists on why such apparent instability and decline occurred at major archaeological settlements on the northern Mesoamerican border, also known as the septentrional frontier. The scarcity of absolute chronological constraints is definitively a handicap that impedes the assessment of northern Mesoamerica’s development from its apogee to its decline. The archaeomagnetic method has been used during the last decades to analyze burned archaeological artifacts belonging to Mesoamerica’s north and central-west frontiers, including different Mexican states. Namely, high-resolution studies were carried out at Aguascalientes (El Ocote), Guanajuato (El Cóporo, Lo de Juárez and Plazuelas), Jalisco (Cerro de Los Agaves, La Palma and El Palacio de Ocomo) and Zacatecas (La Quemada). It was successfully proved that archaeomagnetic dating might greatly contribute to refining the chronology and development of major pre-Hispanic settlements. These studies were based on available geomagnetic curves at the time of publication. However, global geomagnetic models have experienced substantial improvement with the development of local/regional reference archaeomagnetic curves during the last few years. Hence, the need arises for a critical reassessment of reported age intervals and corresponding chronological contexts. Updated archaeomagnetic ages are recalculated considering the geomagnetic models SHA.DIF.14K and SHAWQ.2K as well as the two regional paleosecular variation curves for Mesoamerica. A bootstrap resampling method is used to obtain an optimal age range for each studied structure. These new absolute chronologies indicate that the last fire exposure of the vast majority of the analyzed artifacts unequivocally corresponds to the Mesoamerican early Postclassic related to the depopulation stage apparently caused by environmental changes.

О связи сакрального и социального устройства в савромато-сарматских культурах

Using archaeological materials, this article attempts to reveal correlation between society structural levels of each of the Sauromat-Sarmatian cultures and high-status “priestly” burials practices, as well as special artifacts associated with performance of worship cult acts. The results obtained allow us to assume that family-clan cults were widespread during weakening periods of centralized power. The interment of cult worshipers did not require specific practices. Rich priestly complexes with stable sets of sacred inventory appeared during the time of large nomadic group formation and strengthening periods of centralized power. Such burials most commonly belonged to women. The author proposes options of interaction between political and priestly elite and describes mechanisms for raising status of “priestesses” who performed public rituals.

Defining Dalma: an Incipient Mountain Identity?

Abstract. The Dalma archaeological culture of the northern Zagros has intrigued archaeologists for decades with a resurgence of interest as Dalma-related sherds are found at several sites recently excavated in Iraqi Kurdistan. Research into Dalma has focused on painted and surface-manipulated vessels that are highly distinctive, especially when contrasted with the contemporary widespread black-on-buff painted ceramic traditions of Greater Mesopotamia and southern Iran. Several archaeometric investigations have established that Dalma pottery was always locally produced regardless of where it is found and shows a high degree of microscopic variation in fabrics and production methods despite the apparent uniformity of vessel shapes and decoration patterns. In order to explain this phenomenon, archaeologists have repeatedly argued that groups of pastoral nomads seasonally migrated between Dalma communities and the surrounding regions, facilitating communication within the Dalma territory and producing Dalma cooking vessels with distinct surface markings as needed. However, this model lacks supporting evidence for the existence of highly specialized, long-range nomadism during the Chalcolithic and it does not necessarily explain the centuries-long sustained marked difference between small-scale, village-based Dalma communities and the surrounding societies that were undergoing profound social transformations. Instead, I argue, the Dalma archaeological culture reflects a deliberate rejection of these new forms of social organization by communities who preferred to maintain their adaptive, egalitarian lifeways in the northern Zagros highlands.

The Bajau as a left-behind group in the context of coastal and marine co-management system in Indonesia

The Bajau are a sea nomad group in Indonesia with the largest proportion of the population living nearby or utilizing marine resources in the fragile pelagic zone. In general, the Bajau have been a left-behind group and thus occupied a peripheral role in coastal and marine management and conservation. In Wakatobi, Southeast Sulawesi Province, the Bajau communities are marginalized in terms of policy recognition and development plan. This paper explores how a co-management system which is a platform to synchronize the community and organization needs in the coastal management and customary practices has failed to recruit the Bajau’s participation. The primary data were collected using multi-sited ethnographic method in five Bajau villages in Wakatobi and using key informant interviews with related stakeholders. The inter-customary controls for coastal and marine management, the issue of social cohesion within the Bajau communities, and the lack of institutional support were investigated as drivers of co-management failure in Wakatobi. The implementation of a co-management system requires multi-sectoral agreement and socio-cultural consideration. Unless the Bajau are acknowledged, accepted, and involved as an important partner in marine management and conservation, the success of the co-management system remains in doubt.

Reconstructing the history of founder events using genome-wide patterns of allele sharing across individuals.

Founder events play a critical role in shaping genetic diversity, fitness and disease risk in a population. Yet our understanding of the prevalence and distribution of founder events in humans and other species remains incomplete, as most existing methods require large sample sizes or phased genomes. Thus, we developed ASCEND that measures the correlation in allele sharing between pairs of individuals across the genome to infer the age and strength of founder events. We show that ASCEND can reliably estimate the parameters of founder events under a range of demographic scenarios. We then apply ASCEND to two species with contrasting evolutionary histories: ~460 worldwide human populations and ~40 modern dog breeds. In humans, we find that over half of the analyzed populations have evidence for recent founder events, associated with geographic isolation, modes of sustenance, or cultural practices such as endogamy. Notably, island populations have lower population sizes than continental groups and most hunter-gatherer, nomadic and indigenous groups have evidence of recent founder events. Many present-day groups--including Native Americans, Oceanians and South Asians--have experienced more extreme founder events than Ashkenazi Jews who have high rates of recessive diseases due their known history of founder events. Using ancient genomes, we show that the strength of founder events differs markedly across geographic regions and time--with three major founder events related to the peopling of Americas and a trend in decreasing strength of founder events in Europe following the Neolithic transition and steppe migrations. In dogs, we estimate extreme founder events in most breeds that occurred in the last 25 generations, concordant with the establishment of many dog breeds during the Victorian times. Our analysis highlights a widespread history of founder events in humans and dogs and elucidates some of the demographic and cultural practices related to these events.

«CIMMERO-SCYTHIAN» ANTIQUITIES FROM CENTRAL ANATOLIA

Central Anatolia is one of the regions of Western Asia, where the most significant concentration of archaeological materials connected with the Eurasian nomads of the Early Scythian period is recorded. The flat plains of Central Anatolia had good pastures and served as a space where different cultures communicated with each other since ancient times. In the 7th—6th centuries BC this territory was located between Western Anatolia with Lydia and the eastern Greek centers and Eastern Anatolia, which was the zone of interest of Urartu and Assyria. Small local «principalities» were localized here. These «principalities» were probably controlled by well-armed and mobile nomads, who used this territory as a base for raids on neighboring as well as more distant regions. Finds of nomadic types from Central Anatolia include weapons (bronze arrowheads of various types, iron sword and axe, bimetallic pickaxe), horse equipment (bits with stirrup-shaped loops on the ends, three-looped cheekpieces, harness fittings), and objects made in the traditions of Scythian animal art style. Most numerous category of nomad inventory coming from the region is constituted by socketed arrows found in burials in the province of Amasya, Imirler, Gordion and on the local settlements (Boğazköy, Kaman-Kalehöyük, Kerkenes Dağ). The article introduces their typology and provides analogies coming from the Eurasian monuments of the 7th—6th centuries BC. The study of early nomadic complexes from Anatolia shows their syncretic nature, which is influenced by artifacts of Cimmerian, Scythian, and Сentral Asian origin as well as the local Near Eastern items. It highlights the complex ethnic composition of the nomadic groups located here in the 7th—6th centuries BC that does not allow attributing all these materials to a single group, for example, the Cimmerians.

The genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians

Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians were migration-period nomadic tribal confederations that arrived in three successive waves in the Carpathian Basin between the 5th and 9th centuries. Based on the historical data, each of these groups are thought to have arrived from Asia, although their exact origin and relation to other ancient and modern populations have been debated. Recently, hundreds of ancient genomes were analyzed from Central Asia, Mongolia, and China, from which we aimed to identify putative source populations for the above-mentioned groups. In this study, we have sequenced 9 Hun, 143 Avar, and 113 Hungarian conquest period samples and identified three core populations, representing immigrants from each period with no recent European ancestry. Our results reveal that this "immigrant core" of both Huns and Avars likely originated in present day Mongolia, and their origin can be traced back to Xiongnus (Asian Huns), as suggested by several historians. On the other hand, the "immigrant core" of the conquering Hungarians derived from an earlier admixture of Mansis, early Sarmatians, and descendants of late Xiongnus. We have also shown that a common "proto-Ugric" gene pool appeared in the Bronze Age from the admixture of Mezhovskaya and Nganasan people, supporting genetic and linguistic data. In addition, we detected shared Hun-related ancestry in numerous Avar and Hungarian conquest period genetic outliers, indicating a genetic link between these successive nomadic groups. Aside from the immigrant core groups, we identified that the majority of the individuals from each period were local residents harboring "native European" ancestry.

Empire on the Edge

Abstract This article focuses on the environment and politics in the Ottoman Empire between 1864 and 1890. Specifically, it traces attempts in the region of the Jazira to match provincial borders with both the desert and the motion of people within it. These efforts culminated in the 1871 formation of the special administrative district of Zor (also known as Deir ez-Zor) and a revolt against the administrative arrangement by the Arabic-speaking nomadic group known as the Shammar. The article explains how the Shammar subsequently became attached to different provincial administrations. But the interplay among borders, desert, and motion also continued to incubate ambiguity about what places should be considered part of one province or another. The history of an empire on the edge thus offers a sense of how people thought about and used the environment and borders alike, topics often overshadowed by the post-Ottoman colonial borders imposed on the region. Moreover, it speaks to environmental histories of borderlands, which often foreground absurd borders transecting coherent environments. The article reveals, instead, how even an effort to draw borders around an allegedly coherent environment proved challenging. Finally, the article offers insight into the legacies of “natural” and “artificial” borders in the present.

Knowledge and practices surrounding malaria and LLIN use among Arab, Dazagada and Fulani pastoral nomads in Chad.

Chadian pastoral nomads are highly exposed to malaria due to their lifestyle and their mobility between various endemic areas. To inform strategies to reduce nomads' risk of malaria and associated morbidity and mortality, it is important to understand the factors associated to their knowledge of malaria transmission and prevention practices. A cross-sectional study among Arab, Dazagada and Fulani pastoral nomadic groups was conducted in February and October 2021. A validated structured electronic questionnaire was administered to assess knowledge of malaria. Attitudes and malaria prevention practices were assessed on the basis of perception of the causes of malaria and the use of a long-lasting insecticide-treated net (LLIN) the day before the survey. Data were analyzed using Chi-square tests and multivariate logistic regression with covariates adjustment. A total of 278 nomads aged 20 to 65 years were included in the study. Overall, 90.7% of participants surveyed had a good knowledge of malaria. Fulani respondents were more likely to have a good knowledge of malaria than Arab respondents (Adjusted Odd ratio (AOR): 5.00, 95% CI: 1.04-24.03) and households possessing a LLIN were more likely to have a good knowledge of malaria (AOR: 9.66, 95% CI: 1.24-75.36). Most nomad households surveyed reported sleeping under a mosquito net the night before the survey (87.1%) while 98.9% owned a LLIN. Daza respondents (AOR: 0.23, 95% CI: 0.09-0.56) were less likely to use LLINs than Arab respondents. The middle (AOR: 2.78, 95% CI: 1.17-6.62) and wealthier households (AOR: 6.68, 95% CI: 3.19-14.01) were more likely to use LLINs. Knowledge of malaria was associated with the use of LLIN (AOR: 12.77, 95% CI: 1.58-102.99). There remains a need to improve nomads' understanding of Plasmodium falciparum-carrying mosquitoes as the vector for malaria transmission and the quality of information provided. Knowledge of malaria and its prevention strategies in nomadic setting lead to the use of LLINs. Further reductions in malaria morbidity can be achieved by improving nomads' access to LLINs. This study can inform on the design policies to improve nomadic communities' knowledge of malaria prevention and promoting LLIN use as requested by the national policy against malaria.

Translating Cain: Emotions of Invisibility through the Gaze of Raskolnikov and Bigger by Samantha Joo

Reviewed by: Translating Cain: Emotions of Invisibility through the Gaze of Raskolnikov and Bigger by Samantha Joo Jeffrey H. Pulse samantha joo, Translating Cain: Emotions of Invisibility through the Gaze of Raskolnikov and Bigger (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books/Fortress Academic, 2020). Pp. xii + 187. $100. Samantha Joo approaches the narrative of Cain and Abel using a method designed to translate the emotional connotations of this ancient text. Since the author of the story wants to convey these emotional realities and the subsequent connotations of these emotions, the solution is to "recontextualize" the event in order to evoke similar emotions from the reader. J. argues for the story's transference of an emotional attitude to the reader because the power of the narrative resides in its ability to stir the emotions, not to stimulate the mind. In order to accomplish this, J. focuses on the issue of "invisibility" in the story of Cain and Abel using two classic examples from modern literature that contain this mythic plot: the character of Raskolnikov in Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment and Bigger Thomas in Richard Wright's Native Son. Raskolnikov is a poor, young, ex-university student in nineteenth-century Russia, while Bigger Thomas is a poor, young, black man in Chicago in the 1940s. Both stories, while different in context and time, exhibit the same [End Page 304] mythic plot as seen in the Cain and Abel narrative—invisibility. (1) The character becomes invisible; (2) the character is emotionally distraught at being invisible; and (3) the character kills to find visibility. Thus, J. argues that seeing Cain's story through the characters of Bigger and Raskolnikov, characters who seek visibility through violence, even murder, will lead the reader to look at this ancient story differently. J. is interested in how invisibility molds and affects the character's emotions that then lead to violence. This approach does not try to discern authorial intent or consider the reader's response. Joo structures the book in five sections. In the first, she lays out the theoretical model and then explains the need for analogies. Section 2 is an analysis of the narrative of Cain and Abel, highlighting the social invisibility of Cain, which is implied in Cain's Kenite identity. Then, section 3 is an analysis of Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment and the character Raskolnikov, while section four treats Wright's Native Son and the character Bigger Thomas. Finally, in section 5, J. compares and contrasts the portrayals of Cain, Raskolnikov, and Bigger. The book is laid out to accomplish three distinct purposes. J. states, "On the theoretical level, I will provide a model that will convey emotional connotation of biblical stories via analogies. On the analytical level, I will highlight the Kenite identity of Cain that will explain the reason for the violence. On the social level, I will examine the phenomena of social invisibility and its violent consequence" (p. 6). I believe that J. accomplishes this quite well. The motivation for the murder of Abel is found in Cain's need to be "seen." He felt invisible/ignored by God as Abel and his sacrifice were preferred. To gain the attention of God, therefore, Cain killed his brother. But, as J. argues, this goes far deeper than personal rejection; it is the effect of social marginalization. Working beneath the surface is Cain's Kenite identity. The Kenites were a marginalized group of nomads, and so Cain is the ancestor who represents the Kenites' existence as an "invisible" group, alienated from the more established community. Thus, the rejection of Cain and his offering is a reflection of the social invisibility of the Kenites. J. argues that this Kenite identity is lost on the modern Western reader who is unfamiliar with the agropastoral background of Syro-Palestine; therefore, the intended meaning of the story is lost. Similar stories from modern literature provide an analogy that restores intended meaning to the text. Joo's example of this method of translating emotional connotations of an ancient text using modern literature as analogy is fascinating and useful. However, is it the only way to connect the modern reader to the text? Is it a valid method? Placing...

Farmers or Nomads: Isotopic Evidence of Human–Animal Interactions (770BCE to 221BCE) in Northern Shaanxi, China

Chinese history is composed of the contest, war, and admixture between the nomads in the north plateau and the farmers in central China. During the Eastern Zhou Period (770–221 BCE), nomadic groups, such as Rong (戎) and Di (狄), occupied the Eurasian Steppes and had frequent contact with the farmer group in Central China according historic records. This created a geographic boundary between the two groups named the agro-pastoral interweaving belt. To explore the impact of ethnic integration and human–animal interaction during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of humans and animals at the Chongpingyuan site, Shaanxi, was undertaken. The δ13C (mean: -7.9 ± 0.5‰, n = 17) and δ15N values (mean: 8.8 ± 0.6‰, n = 17) for human and pigs (mean δ13C: −8.1 ± 0.5‰; mean δ15N:7.5 ± 0.5‰, n = 2) revealed that they consumed C4-based foods mainly while the δ13C and δ15N values of cattle (−17.6‰, 4.3‰, n = 1), horse (−17.1‰, 4.1‰, n = 1), and sheep (mean: −17.4 ± 1.5‰, 6.0 ± 0.8‰, n = 7) suggest that they relied on C3 plants supplemented with minor C4 plants. Based on the archaeological and historic contexts, we infer that humans at Chongpingyuan survived on an agro-pastoral economy with millet agriculture as the economic foundation. Given the isotopic spacing between humans and animals, we found that pigs contributed to the main sources of animal protein, whereas other animals might have been provisioned for other purposes, such as rituals or properties. In general, no significantly dietary differences between genders and funeral customs are found, but people with abundant burial objects seem to have consumed more animal protein, possibly related to social heterogeneity.

Knowledge and social beliefs of malaria and prevention strategies among itinerant Nomadic Arabs, Fulanis and Dagazada groups in Chad: a mixed method study

BackgroundNomadic populations in Chad are at increased risk of contracting malaria because of their lifestyle. Being highly mobile they are often excluded from disease control programmes, and access to preventive measures and treatment is more difficult. Effective malaria control interventions take account of local modes of transmission, patterns of care-seeking behaviour and community perceptions of cause and prevention practices. There is currently little information about malaria knowledge and perceptions among nomadic groups in Chad, or their awareness of malaria control interventions and this study sought to address this knowledge gap.MethodsA mixed methods study, including a cross-sectional survey with men and women (n = 78) to determine the level of knowledge and use of malaria prevention strategies among Arabs, Peuls and Dagazada nomadic groups. Three focus group discussions were conducted with women to explore their representation of malaria and knowledge of preventive methods. Key informant interviews were held with leaders of nomadic groups (n = 6) to understand perception of malaria risk among itinerant communities.ResultsNomads are aware of the risk of malaria, recognize the symptoms and have local explanations for the disease. Reported use of preventive interventions such as Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention (SMC) for children and Intermittent Preventive Treatment (IPT) of malaria in pregnancy was very low. However, 42.3% of respondents reported owning at least one LLIN and 60% said they slept under an LLIN the night before the survey. In case of a malaria episode, nomads seek clinicians, informal drug sellers in the street or market for self-medication, or traditional medicine depending on their financial means. Interviews with nomad leaders and discussions with women provide key themes on: (i) social representation of malaria risk and (ii) social representation of malaria and (iii) perspectives on malaria prevention and (iv) malaria treatment practices.ConclusionThe nomadic groups included in this study are aware of risk of malaria and their level of exposure. Local interpretations of the cause of malaria could be addressed through tailored and appropriate health education. Except for LLINs, malaria prevention interventions are not well known or used. Financial barriers lowered access to both mosquito nets and malaria treatment. Reducing the barriers highlighted in this study will improve access to the healthcare system for nomadic groups, and increase the opportunity to create awareness of and improve uptake of SMC and IPT among women and children.

A Tribe is Burnt to the Ground: Reading The Legend of the Thousand Bulls as an Advocacy of Cultural Integrity

The nomads (yörüks) of Anatolia were forced to sedentarisation both during the Ottoman and the Turkish Republican eras. In today’s Anatolia, only approximately one hundred families are left who maintain their nomadic way of life: the Sarıkeçili Yörüks whose inclusion in UNESCO’s List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding is pending. In The Legend of the Thousand Bulls [Binboğalar Efsanesi] (1971), Yaşar Kemal tells, with genuine pathos, the story of the Karaçullu, a sixty-tent pastoralist clan living in the Middle Taurus area of Southern Anatolia. Kemal depicts the Karaçullu as one of the last surviving nomadic groups of the Turkish Republic in the early 1950s and follows their quest, from one spring to the next, to find a permanent pasture upon losing their hopes of the possibility of continuing a nomadic way of life. He demonstrates the correlation between sedentarisation and the tribe’s disintegration over two axes. The first is the process from one stage of capitalism to the other as regards the ending of the nomadic way of life. The second axis is cultural integrity. Yaşar Kemal constructs the story of the tribe over the very intertwinement of the fight for existence and the fight for cultural integrity laying emphasis on the inextricable link between them. Analysing Yaşar Kemal’s emphasis on this link through the representations of nomadism in his novel as well as the connections he makes with historical events that led to the disappearance of the nomadic culture in Anatolia, I hope to contribute to cultural studies related with anthropological research on nomadism and create awareness about the situation of the last nomads of Anatolia.

Biographical and Cultural Evolution of Paanar

Tamil literary tradition registers 'tinai' divisions which is "a language with in a language" comments A.K. Ramanujan as it provides infinite possibilities to create in a finite frame. Along with people in respective landscapes, there are a nomadic group of paanar who visited all five landscapes spreading the oral tradition. References about the paanar, their oral tradition and nomadic lifestyle are found in cankam literature. There are different kinds of paanar referred performers, singers, declaimers, kuttar, viraliyar, poribar and panar along with their female counterparts and characteristic instruments. Records correspond that they were nomadic and visited kings to sing their praise and receive gifts. Their female counterparts were called 'viraliyar'. The Bard community depended on Kings and patrons for their livelihood. They are also called as 'isai panar' or musical paanar. They are further classified into three 'isai panar', 'yazh panar' and 'mandai panar'. This classification is also considered as separate caste by some and separate sect by others. These three sects of paanar are the ancestors of paanar. This research paper intends to study whether this nomadic lifestyle, singing the praise of kings, depending on kings' gifts for livelihood gave the paanar contentment in life from anthropological perspective.