No-take Marine Protected Areas Research Articles

Sea Cucumbers (Holothuroidea) of Northeastern and Western Mindanao, Philippines: The Potential Role of Marine Protected Areas in Maintaining Diversity and Abundance

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are considered strategic tools in conserving biodiversity and maintaining stocks of valuable resources. We assessed sea cucumbers in five provinces in northeastern and western Mindanao to describe the state of diversity and abundance and evaluate the role of MPAs in sustaining stocks of exploited species. We identified 36 species of sea cucumbers from fishery-independent surveys on shallow reef flats and deeper reef slopes, of which 33 species (92%) belong to order Aspidochirotida and three species belong to Order Apodida. The majority are shallow-water holothurians occurring on reef flats and seagrass beds, while a few species are found along reef slopes or in fresh catches by fishers sold to local traders or processors in some sites. Nine species are considered high-value to the global trepang trade but occur at low densities, while the rest are abundant or common species with low commercial value. Species richness (S=17-30 spp.) varies across sites, but species composition similarity is relatively high (Sørensen’s SQ = 0.62-0.78). Mean population densities and variances of high-value species are significantly higher inside enforced MPAs than in non-MPA sites(t-test, p <0.05; F-test, p<0.005) across five survey sites. The abundance of high-value H. scabra in Tubajon and H. fuscogilva in Capayas Island demonstrates the critical role of MPAs in conserving biodiversity, maintaining population levels, and ensuring natural recruitment of sea cucumber resources. Urgent management measures such as formulating a national management plan, regulating harvests, and establishing no-take MPAs are recommended.

Economic valuation of the snapper recruitment effect from a well-established temperate no-take marine reserve on adjacent fisheries

The global exhaustion of marine fishery resources has triggered worldwide demands for sustainable utilization of marine resources and Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM). Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a long-term spatial management strategy in the EBM toolbox. MPAs demonstrate ecological and economic benefits. While MPAs’ ecological benefits are well researched, there are only a few studies that estimate the economic benefits of MPAs to the adjacent fisheries. Currently, methodologies for measuring the economic benefits flowing from MPAs are underdeveloped. Our research builds on a recent assessment of the economic contribution of a small, temperate, no-take marine reserve in New Zealand to rejuvenating depleted snapper (Sparidae: Chrysophrys auratus) stocks. Empirical evidence shows that 10.6% of newly settled juvenile snappers sampled up to 55 km outside of the MPA were the offspring of adult snappers from the MPA. This suggests a significant boost to the commercial fishery of $NZ 1.49 million catch landing value per annum and $NZ 3.21 million added from recreational fishing activity associated spending per annum. These values all come from the recruitment effects associated with one species, from only 0.08% of the marine space in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand. The economic valuation of this marine reserve’s snapper recruitment effect demonstrated $NZ 9.64 million in total spending accruing to recreational fishing per annum and $NZ 4.89 million in total output to commercial fisheries annually. This study is the first estimation of the economic valuation of the recruitment effects from a well-established temperate no-take MPA. It represents an important step forward for quantifying the economic benefits of marine reserves and how marine reserves could have positive influence on EBM and marine sustainability.

Functionality and Effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas in Southeastern Brazilian Waters for Demersal Elasmobranchs

Ensuring the efficacy of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) requires that adequate management strategies be implemented according to the MPA’s objectives. Within the scope of species conservation, achieving MPA objectives demands understanding of the role played by MPAs for the target species. In 2014, Brazilian stakeholders and experts set the action plan for elasmobranchs’ conservation, which intended to create new protected areas and expand the existing ones. Nevertheless, more than 65% of Brazilian elasmobranch species are threatened by anthropogenic pressures such as fisheries and habitat loss. In addition, their ecological aspects are not well studied, which might jeopardize the success of the proposed actions. To assess the functionality and effectiveness of two no-take MPAs for sixteen demersal species, the Wildlife Refuge of Alcatrazes (WRA) and the Tupinambás Ecological Station (TES), we evaluated the community structure, space-time variations in functional diversity and changes in fishery indicators. Community dynamics were driven by inshore intrusion and time persistent effects of a cold and nutrient-rich water mass, the South Atlantic Central Water, which increased the relative abundance of species, functional groups, and overall diversity. Spatially, the heterogeneity of benthic habitats, due to the action of stronger waves in specific parts of the MPAs, reflects a diverse community of benthic invertebrates, explaining differences in relative abundance and similarities in space use by the functional groups. Regarding effectiveness, the MPAs make up a key network with the surrounding protection areas to support the ecosystem maintenance on the central and northern coast of the São Paulo state. The establishment of the TES has positively influenced the community throughout the years while the recent creation of the WRA may have promoted some improvements in fisheries indicators for a threatened guitarfish. We propose different functions of the Alcatrazes archipelago for each species and suggest some measures to enhance not only elasmobranch conservation but also the MPAs’ effectiveness.

Effectiveness of Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas in the Atlantic Ocean for Reducing Fishing Activities

The implementation of large-scale marine protected areas (MPAs) depends upon scarce conservation resources, while their effects on biodiversity conservation are rarely assessed to date. Quantitative evaluations are necessary to assess the effectiveness of large-scale MPAs in enhancing ecosystem resilience, protecting biodiversity, and mitigating expanding threats. In this study, the effectiveness of large-scale MPAs, which are remotely managed and in offshore areas of the southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Brazil), was assessed concerning the occurrence of fishing activities within their boundaries before and after their implementation. Two sets of MPAs surrounding the São Pedro and São Paulo archipelago (SPSP) and the Trindade-Martin Vaz Islands (TMV) were established in early 2018, each comprising one no-take (i.e., fully-protected) and one multiple-use (i.e., partially-protected) area. For this assessment, I used satellite detections of Vessel Monitoring System transmission to quantify the fishing pressure (i.e., “likely fishing days”) from commercial fisheries spanning 5 years (2015–2019). I then derived three metrics – fishing area, intensity, and density – to compare fishing activity within each MPA and year. The results showed that the effectiveness of the multiple-use MPAs was variable and contrasting, with SPSP experiencing a reduction in the fishing intensity and area and TMV experiencing an increase in both measures. An inverted pattern was evident for the no-take MPAs: while the one in the SPSP region experienced an increase in the fishing density after its establishment following a squeeze factor, the no-take MPA in the TMV region observed a decrease in the fishing density when comparing years before and after MPA implementation. These outputs can support managers in planning the implementation of further conservation strategies, such as monitoring and enforcement plans, and the analyses here also contribute to enhancing our understanding on the implications and challenges of adopting large-scale MPAs in the offshore environment as a high-profile strategy of ocean conservation.

Successful parks for sharks: No-take marine reserve provides conservation benefits to endemic and threatened sharks off South Africa

Sharks are among the most threatened vertebrates on the planet. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been widely established and promoted as a shark conservation tool. However, the geographic ranges of most imperiled shark species (endemic and threatened) fall outside the current global networks of MPAs, leaving the protective benefits of this tool questionable for the shark species of highest conservation concern. The Western Cape of South Africa is a hotspot for endemic and threatened shark species. Here, we examined the potential protective benefit of a no-take marine reserve (the De Hoop MPA) for imperiled shark species using baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS). Eleven shark species were documented, with six of 11 species (55%) classified as threatened with extinction by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. The composition of the shark assemblage was dominated by small to mid-sized species, including small endemics. Species-specific habitat preferences were identified, with all these habitats represented in the MPA. Frequency of occurrence and relative abundance of sharks on BRUVS were significantly higher inside the De Hoop MPA than outside. Both protected and commercially exploited sharks species exhibited higher relative abundance inside the MPA. Relative abundance also increased inside the MPA with increasing distance from the reserve boundaries. Our findings suggest that no-take MPAs can be an effective tool for protecting shark species of conservation concern, including threatened endemics, particularly if the MPA adequately incorporates their preferred habitats.

How to Meet New Global Targets in the Offshore Realms: Biophysical Guidelines for Offshore Networks of No-Take Marine Protected Areas

Networks of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs), where all extractive activities are prohibited, are the most effective tool to directly protect marine ecosystems from destructive and unsustainable human activities. No-take MPAs and MPA networks have been globally implemented in coastal seas, and their success has been significantly enhanced where science-based biophysical guidelines have informed their design. Increasingly, as human pressure on marine ecosystems is expanding further offshore, governments are establishing offshore MPAs—some very large—or MPA networks. Globally, there are growing calls from scientists, non-government organisations, and national governments to set global conservation targets upwards of 30%. Given that most of the ocean is found either in the high seas or offshore within national Exclusive Economic Zones, large offshore MPAs or networks of MPAs must be a major component of these global targets for ocean protection. However, without adequate design, these offshore MPAs risk being placed to minimise conflict with economic interests, rather than to maximise biodiversity protection. This paper describes detailed biophysical guidelines that managers can use to design effective networks of no-take MPAs in offshore environments. We conducted a systematic review of existing biophysical design guidelines for networks of MPAs in coastal seas, and found consistent elements relating to size, shape, connectivity, timeframes, and representation of biophysical features. However, few of the guidelines are tailored to offshore environments, and few of the large offshore MPAs currently in place were designed systematically. We discuss how the common inshore design guidelines should be revised to be responsive to the characteristics of offshore ecosystems, including giving consideration of issues of scale, data availability, and uncertainty. We propose 10 biophysical guidelines that can be used to systematically design offshore networks of MPAs which will also contribute to the global goal of at least 30% protection globally. Finally, we offer three priority guidelines that reflect the unique conservation needs of offshore ecosystems: emphasising the need for larger MPAs; maximising the inclusion of special features that are known and mapped; and representing minimum percentages of habitats, or, where mapped, bioregions. Ultimately, MPA guidelines need to be embedded within an adaptive management framework, and have the flexibility to respond to emerging knowledge and new challenges.

A meta-analysis reveals edge effects within marine protected areas.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) play a leading role in conserving and restoring marine environments. MPAs can benefit both marine populations within their boundaries and external populations owing to a net export of organisms (spillover). However, little is known about variation in performance within MPAs. For example, edge effects may degrade populations within MPAs close to their boundaries. Here we synthesize empirical estimates of 72 taxa of fish and invertebrates to explore spatial patterns across the borders of 27 no-take MPAs. We show that there is a prominent and consistent edge effect that extends approximately 1 km within the MPA, in which population sizes on the border are 60% smaller than those in the core area. Our analysis of cross-boundary population trends suggests that, globally, the smallest 64% of no-take MPAs (those of less than 10 km2 in area) may hold only about half (45-56%) of the population size that is implied by their area. MPAs with buffer zones did not display edge effects, suggesting that extending no-take areas beyond the target habitats and managing fishing activities around MPA borders are critical for boosting MPA performance.

Projecting the timescale of initial increase in fishery yield after implementation of marine protected areas

Abstract Adaptive management of marine protected areas (MPAs) to determine whether they are meeting their intended goals requires predicting how soon those goals will be realized. Such predictions have been made for increases in fish abundance and biomass inside MPAs. However, projecting increases in fishery yield (“fishery spillover”) is more complex because it involves both how the fishery is managed and uncertainty in larval connectivity. We developed a two-patch, age-structured population model, based on a renewal equation approach, to project the initial timing of increase in fishery yield from larvae exported from a no-take MPA. Our results link our understanding of the predicted timing of increases in biomass (and thus reproduction) in MPAs with the time-lags associated with new recruits entering the fishery. We show that the time-lag between biomass peaking within the MPA and the increased fishery yield outside the MPA reaching its maximum depends, in a predictable way, on the age-dependent patterns of growth, natural mortality, and fishing mortality. We apply this analysis to 16 fishery species from the US Pacific coast; this difference ranged from 7 to 18 years. This model provides broadly applicable guidance for this important emerging aspect of fisheries management.

Drivers of distribution of the parrotfish Sparisoma frondosum (agassiz, 1831) in Southwest Atlantic rocky reefs: Insights for management and conservation

Understanding the effects of environmental drivers on fish distribution is of primary importance for designing effective conservation measures to protect endangered species. In this study, we investigated which habitat and spatial predictors enhance the abundance and biomass of the parrotfish Sparisoma frondosum in tropical rocky reefs from a Southwest Atlantic insular complex. Besides more than 170 islands, the Ilha Grande Bay (IGB) also harbors one of the most threatened Brazilian Marine Protected Area (MPA), the Ecological Station of Tamoios (ESEC–Tamoios). This no-take MPA became an emblematic area of the systematic dismantling of Brazilian environmental laws ongoing since the beginning of 2019 when the current government has declared intentions to recategorize and reduce the ESEC-Tamoios protection status. Our results revealed that distance from the coast and depth better explained the distribution of the iconic and vulnerable S. frondosum, regardless the presence of the no-take areas. An overall trend of increasing abundance and biomass with distance and depth was observed, except for sites with high cover of invasive coral Tubastraea spp. We also discuss the ESEC-Tamoios effectiveness and its current panorama to the Southwest Atlantic rocky reef's conservation. Finally, we identify strategies to protect parrotfishes and expand the ecological benefit of this MPA to adjacent areas.

Weak biodiversity connectivity in the European network of no-take marine protected areas

The need for international cooperation in marine resource management and conservation has been reflected in the increasing number of agreements aiming for effective and well-connected networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). However, the extent to which individual MPAs are connected remains mostly unknown. Here, we use a biophysical model tuned with empirical data on species dispersal ecology to predict connectivity of a vast spectrum of biodiversity in the European network of marine reserves (i.e., no-take MPAs). Our results highlight the correlation between empirical propagule duration data and connectivity potential and show weak network connectivity and strong isolation for major ecological groups, resulting from the lack of direct connectivity corridors between reserves over vast regions. The particularly high isolation predicted for ecosystem structuring species (e.g., corals, sponges, macroalgae and seagrass) might potentially undermine biodiversity conservation efforts if local retention is insufficient and unmanaged populations are at risk. Isolation might also be problematic for populations' persistence in the light of climate change and expected species range shifts. Our findings provide novel insights for management directives, highlighting the location of regions requiring additional marine reserves to function as stepping-stone connectivity corridors.

Seasonal aggregations of blacktip sharks Carcharhinus limbatus at a marine protected area in the Gulf of California, assessed by unoccupied aerial vehicle surveys

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs) can provide spatial refuge for species throughout all or part of their life cycles. Cabo Pulmo National Park (CPNP) is a no-take MPA located on the south-east coast of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, where there has been an increase in the abundance and diversity of elasmobranch species since its closure to fishing. An unoccupied aerial vehicle was used to complete weekly aerial surveys over sandy habitat in CPNP to determine the relative abundance of blacktip sharksCarcharhinus limbatusover a 1 yr period in 2019.C. limbatuswere only observed during winter months, and abundance per survey ranged between 7 and 1086 sharks (289 ± 59, mean ± SE), yielding a maximum density of 4827 ind. km-2. A generalized additive model determined that sea surface temperature (SST), time of day, photoperiod and wind speed were significant influencers ofC. limbatusabundance. According to this model, higher abundance is expected when SST is lower than 25°C, during the afternoon, at low wind speeds (<4 knots) and when photoperiod is between 12 and 13 h. The close proximity ofC. limbatusto the shoreline is likely a result of a refuging behaviour, with sharks utilising the shallow sandy habitat to behaviourally thermoregulate and/or to avoid predators.

Beyond the boundaries: How regulation-centered marine protected area information improves ocean protection assessments

Comprehensive, spatially explicit data that include regulatory information are essential for evaluating the level of protection that marine protected areas (MPAs) and other marine managed areas (MMAs) provide to marine life, and to inform progress towards ocean protection targets. An analysis based on the ProtectedSeas database, which includes information on regulated activities, found that 85% of U.S. waters are in managed areas that restrict living resource extraction at some level above generally applicable regulations, with 52% managed at a low level of protection and 3% managed as highly protected no-take areas. States with the most state waters area in no-take MPAs are Hawaii (~25%), California (~9%), and Oregon (~3%). The majority of highly protected areas in U.S. waters exist in low-populated areas of the Pacific, such as the Papahānaumokuākea and Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monuments. Under a quarter of U.S. waters are closed to bottom trawling, with the West Coast and Alaska each contributing one-third of trawl closures by area. Bottom trawling is prohibited in nearly 90% of West Coast waters. Focusing on waters off California showed that overlapping management and fishing gear restrictions can increase overall protection. In state waters, no-take MPAs account for roughly 9% of the area, while restricted take MPAs of different types cover 27% of the area. About 40% of California state waters are in some kind of MPA, while 13.4% of state waters have a high level of protection from fishing impacts. In federal waters off California, under one percent are in no-take areas while nearly all waters are subject to some kind of fishery restriction. Capturing regulatory information at the individual MPA and MMA level will improve assessments of current protection, inform planning of new protections, and provide ocean users a more accessible way to increase compliance through awareness.

Protecting nursery areas without fisheries management is not enough to conserve the most endangered parrotfish of the Atlantic Ocean

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary strategy for marine conservation worldwide, having as a common goal the protection of essential habitats to enhance fish population recovery. However, MPAs alone may not be effective because species are not isolated from critical impacts occurring outside their boundaries. We evaluated how protecting critical nursery habitats affect the population of an important fishing target, using a 6-year database to predict juvenile hotspots and estimate population trends of the endemic and endangered parrotfish Scarus trispinosus within a mosaic of MPAs at the Abrolhos Bank, NE Brazil. We found that important nursery habitats are within no-take areas, but both juvenile and adult populations still show a declining trend over time. MPAs failed to ensure population maintenance and recovery likely due to overfishing in adjacent areas and the lack of compliance to management rules within multiple-use and within no-take MPAs. MPAs alone are not enough to protect ecologically important endangered species, but is still one of the only conservation strategies, particularly in developing countries. Our results shed light on the need for a wider adoption of more effective conservation policies in addition to MPAs, both in Brazil and in countries with similar governance contexts.

Does quality of scuba diving experience vary according to the context and management regime of marine protected areas?

Sustainability of scuba diving tourism should be assessed not only in environmental terms, but also concerning the quality of the diving experiences. Through the application of semi-structured questionnaires, we assessed differences in the scuba diving experiences from three subtropical Brazilian marine protected areas (MPAs) with different contexts and management regimes. We found that MPAs of more restrictive categories attracted mostly divers motivated by their natural attributes. We also found that satisfaction levels were significantly lower in the no-take MPA, where public use planning is stricter. Although we could not replicate the MPAs’ contexts, our findings highlight the importance of management strategy as well as the influence of MPA age and socio-ecological context on scuba diving experiences. In this regard, managers and dive operators are encouraged to assess user characteristics and the context in which the MPA finds itself to plan and develop sustainable tourism.

The effects of fishing on the ontogeny of trophic position and body condition of a small-sized temperate marine fish

Using rainbow wrasse as a model species, we evaluate the impact of protection on the relationship between body size and: i) trophic position (TP), based on δ15N; and ii) body condition (BC), based on weight-at-length. We found that the biomass of the rainbow wrasse, their predators and their competitors was higher inside the no-take marine protected area (NTA) than in the area open to fishing. The TP of rainbow wrasse was higher inside the NTA but the BC was lower. A domed relationship between TP and size was observed in both areas: the TP increased with size up to 12.6 cm total length, when all individuals shifted to terminal males, and then decreased. Although other confounding environmental variables may exist, the indirect effects of fishing on competition and predation risk are the most likely explanation for the changes in TP, BC and the ontogenetic dietary shift of the rainbow wrasse.

Conserving spawning stocks through harvest slot limits and no-take protected areas.

The key to the conservation of harvested species is the maintenance of reproductive success. Yet for many marine species large, old, individuals are targeted despite their disproportionate contribution to reproduction. We hypothesized that a combination of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) and harvest slot limits (maximum and minimum size limits) would result in the conservation of large spawning individuals under heavy harvest. We tested this approach under different harvest intensities with a 2-sex, stage-structured metapopulation model for the Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus). P. argus is intensively harvested in the Caribbean, and in many localities large, mature individuals no longer exist. No-take MPAs and harvest slot limits combined, rebuilt and maintained large mature individuals even under high harvest pressure. The most conservative model (a 30% MPA and harvest slot limit of 75-105 mm) increased spawner abundance by 5.53E12 compared with the fishing status quo at the end of 30 years. Spawning stock abundance also increased by 2.76-9.56E12 individuals at a high harvest intensity over 30 years with MPAs alone. Our results demonstrate the potential of MPAs and harvest slot limits for the conservation of large breeding individuals in some marine and freshwater environments. Decisions on which management strategy best suits a fishery, however, requires balancing what is ecologically desirable with what is economically and socially feasible.

Mitigating negative livelihood impacts of no-take MPAs on small-scale fishers

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have the potential to support small-scale fishers in managing their resources. However, a general failure to consider the varying levels of vulnerability of fishers has resulted in MPAs that, often unintentionally, adversely impact small-scale fishers. Furthermore, when fishers lack the capacity to adapt to MPA-related changes, MPAs may fail to meet conservation objectives because fishers do not comply with MPA regulations. In this study, we developed a systematic method to identify individuals who are most vulnerable to being negatively impacted by no-take MPAs through an index that represents individual-level vulnerability. We designed a method for identifying these individuals based on four socioeconomic factors pertaining to vulnerability to MPA changes: livelihood diversity, education, age and wealth, then applied this method in two socially and economically heterogeneous communities in Myanmar's Myeik Archipelago. We used empirical data collected from 80 small-scale fishers in this area to represent each factor, then generated a local-level ‘Livelihood Impact Potential Index’ (LIPI) that reflects the degree to which a no-take MPA would impact an individual fisher's ability to support his or her livelihood. When attributed to each fisher's most frequented fishing ground, the LIPI can identify locations where no-take MPAs would be most detrimental to small-scale fishers' livelihoods based on their levels of vulnerability. The LIPI can thus be used alongside ecological and commercial fishing data to support planners in designing local-scale MPAs that maximise positive impact on biodiversity and minimise adverse impacts on the most vulnerable fishers in a community.

Where Marine Protected Areas would best represent 30% of ocean biodiversity

The IUCN (the International Union for Conservation of Nature) World Conservation Congress called for the full protection of 30% of each marine habitat globally and at least 30% of all the ocean. Thus, we quantitatively prioritized the top 30% areas for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) globally using global scale measures of biodiversity from the species to ecosystem level. The analysis used (a) Ecosystems mapped based on 20 environmental variables, (b) four Biomes (seagrass, kelp, mangrove, and shallow water coral reefs) plus seabed rugosity as a proxy for habitat, and (c) species richness within each biogeographic Realm (indicating areas of species endemicity), so as to maximise representivity of biodiversity overall.We found that the 30% prioritized areas were mainly on continental coasts, island arcs, oceanic islands, the southwest Indian Ridge, the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Coral Triangle, Caribbean Sea, and Arctic Archipelago. They generally covered 30% of the Ecosystems and over 80% of the Biomes. Although 58% of the areas were within countries Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ), only 10% were in MPAs, and <1% in no-take MPAs (IUCN category Ia). These prioritized areas indicate where it would be optimal to locate MPAs for recovery of marine biodiversity within and outside country's EEZ. Our results thus provide a map that will aid both national and international planning of where to protect marine biodiversity as a whole.

Individual and Population Benefits of Marine Reserves for Reef Sharks.

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs) are a commonly applied tool to reduce human fishing impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems. However, conservation outcomes of MPAs for mobile and long-lived predators such as sharks are highly variable. Here, we use empirical animal tracking data from 459 individual sharks and baited remote underwater video surveys undertaken in 36 countries to construct an empirically supported individual-based model that estimates the conservation effectiveness of MPAs for five species of coral reef-associated sharks (Triaenodon obesus, Carcharhinus melanopterus, Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos, Carcharhinus perezi, and Ginglymostoma cirratum). We demonstrate how species-specific individual movement traits can contribute to fishing mortality of sharks found within MPAs as they move outside to adjacent fishing grounds. We discovered that the world's officially recorded coral reef-based managed areas (with a median width of 9.4 km) would need to be enforced as strict no-take MPAs and up to 5 times larger to expect protection of the majority of individuals of the five investigated reef shark species. The magnitude of this effect depended on local abundances and fishing pressure, with MPAs required to be 1.6-2.6 times larger to protect the same number of Atlantic and Caribbean species, which occur at lower abundances than similar species in the western Pacific. Furthermore, our model was used to quantify partially substantial reductions (>50%) in fishing mortality resulting from small increases in MPA size, allowing us to bridge a critical gap between traditional conservation planning and fisheries management. Overall, our results highlight the challenge of relying on abundance data alone to ensure that estimates of shark conservation impacts of MPAs follow the precautionary approach.

Exclusionary decision-making processes in marine governance: The rezoning plan for the protected areas of the ‘iconic’ Galapagos Islands, Ecuador

The number of marine protected areas (MPAs) has increased twenty-fold since 1993, and there are ambitious targets for further expansion set by international conservation agencies. This expansion has been accompanied by claims that only No-take MPAs (NTMPAs) can effectively ensure biodiversity conservation, and the international marine conservation community has become increasingly active and influential in promoting them. However, NTMPAs clearly have consequences for resource users whose livelihoods are impacted by restricted access to natural resources. Since these consequences can trigger social conflicts that impeded progress towards conservation goals, there have been concerted efforts to find collaborative and inclusive approaches to MPA planning and management. This paper assesses stakeholder engagement in decision-making processes related to marine conservation planning and management in the Galapagos Marine Reserve, and examines how these have been influenced by shifting narratives of biodiversity conservation in the lead up to, and the execution of, the 2016 rezoning process. A dramatic shift in the rezoning process, a top-down declaration of a no-take MPA, fostered social conflicts that have delayed the full-implementation of the new zoning plan even three years after its official declaration. Through a mixed-methods approach we contrast perceptions, expectations and experiences of key actors in three stakeholder groups: the small-scale fisheries sector, the scientific research community, and the conservation management sector. This study illustrates challenges associated with rushed conservation initiatives, promoted and supported by large external conservation NGOs, and it demonstrates how a “back to the barriers” approach to conservation can undermine acceptance of conservation practices and jeopardize the success of MPAs.