NCLB Research Articles

The Efficacy of Private Sector Providers in Improving Public Educational Outcomes

School districts required under No Child Left Behind (NCLB) to provide supplemental educational services (SES) to students in schools that are not making adequate yearly progress rely heavily on the private sector to offer choice in services. If the market does not drive out ineffective providers, students may not gain through SES participation. We estimate SES provider effects on students’ math and reading achievement in an urban school district that accounts for a significant share of participating students. We expect this research to inform education policy on the viability of policy interventions employing a private market model to improve public sector outcomes, including the reauthorization of Title I and district tutoring interventions under NCLB and after federal waivers from NCLB.

No Art Teacher Left Behind: Professional Development that Really Matters in an Age of Accountability

Teacher professional development is a chief concern of states, districts, and schools in the wake of high-stakes accountability measures such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB). The goals and practices of professional development are often disconnected, and this misalignment affects art teachers in unique ways. Art teachers are often “left behind,” without the opportunity for content-specific professional development experiences. This article presents the thesis that effective professional development must be content-specific and continuous and bear out authentic connections among purpose, content, and evaluation. Both NCLB and the National Art Education Association (NAEA) have established goals and standards for quality professional development for art teachers. This article synthesizes these standards and describes current gaps in practice. Finally, the article presents a model of art teacher professional development that meets at the nexus of artist, teacher, and community and addresses these gaps in practice. These aspects of professional development, if explored, practiced, and rigorously evaluated, can establish a culture of quality professional development for art teachers.

Bad Tests or Bad Test Use? A Case of SAT Use to Examine Why We Need Stakeholder Conversations on Validity

Background Much is still unknown or unclear about how and where validity issues arise in high stakes testing situations in education, and ways by which we can rectify validity problems in practice and policy contexts. Purpose This paper is the Foreword to the special issue of the Teachers College Record, When Education Measures Go Public – Stakeholder Perspectives on How and Why Validity Breaks Down. Method The paper analyzes a recent case involving an application of the SAT to highlight tensions between validity and test score use in high stakes school accountability environments driven by the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001. It uses the case study as a vehicle to introduce the individual papers and authors in the section. Conclusions There are information and power gaps among those who set societal priorities for using tests for high stakes purposes, those who design and conduct psychometric research on tests and testing programs, and those who could eventually face consequences of assessment misuse. These gaps could be addressed through thoughtful exchanges among key assessment stakeholders, as this special issue shows.

Changes in the Cognitive Complexity of English Instruction: The Moderating Effects of School and Classroom Characteristics

Background/Context A central aim of standards-based reform is to close achievement gaps by raising academic standards for all students. Rigorous standards coupled with aligned assessments will purportedly improve student opportunity to learn through high-quality, aligned instruction. After 10 years of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the impact of standards-based reform on student achievement in English Language Arts (ELA) remains questionable. Improving ELA achievement has been a central focus of NCLB, so this study examines changes in the cognitive demand coverage of teachers’ ELA instruction over time during the NCLB era. Research Question Three research questions guide the analyses: (a) How have the cognitive demand levels of ELA instruction changed over time? (b) To what extent have changes in the cognitive demand level of ELA instruction differed across settings based on school and classroom characteristics? (c) How have cognitive demand levels changed as school composition has changed? Subjects The sample consists of 2,064 ELA teachers in grades K-12. The teachers come from 344 schools in 15 states; the majority are K-3 educators. Research Design This study relies on secondary data analysis of teachers’ responses to the Surveys of Enacted Curriculum (SEC). First, we used a within-teacher fixed-effects regression model to determine how cognitive demand coverage changed over time. Second, we examined how these changes varied by school and classroom characteristics (e.g., Title 1 status). Finally, we investigated how changes in cognitive demand coverage varied based on within-school changes in school and classroom characteristics. Findings Findings demonstrate that cognitive demand coverage has changed considerably over the study period, moving from higher and lower levels toward the middle. There were, however, notable variations between schools serving different populations of students. Schools in urban areas serving predominantly students from historically marginalized groups (e.g., racial/ethnic minorities) saw more of a shift toward lower levels of cognitive demand than was seen at schools serving whiter and wealthier students. Conclusions/Recommendations There have been different instructional responses to standards and assessments in different settings, with decreased cognitive demand in urban/ high-needs schools relative to suburban/lower-needs schools. These shifts seem to run contrary to the idea that all students should be held to the same high standards. We recommend that future research consider longitudinal data regarding teachers’ instruction. It is also important that policymakers, particularly those working on the Common Core State Standards, consider these differential responses to standards-based reform.

Teacher and Administrator Responses to Standards-Based Reform

Background Since the onset of standards-based reform and its continuation in the form of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and now Race to the Top, debates have continued about whether such policies foster desirable change in states, districts, schools and classrooms. Research Question The study asks: How do state and district administrators, principals, and teachers describe their responses to standards-based reform, in terms of beliefs, understanding, and attitudes, as well as behavior? Participants The analysis uses interview data from 32 schools in 10 districts in 5 states. Data are from 60 fourth- and seventh-grade mathematics teachers, 32 principals, 14 district administrators, and 7 state officials. Research Design The overarching five-state study identified a representative probability sample of districts for each state. From those districts, two in each state were chosen for the case study, based on size and poverty. Data Collection and Analysis Interviews were transcribed, then coded both inductively and deductively to identify patterns and elicit major themes. Findings This study provides evidence that standards-based reform has elicited positive change in four areas: attention to struggling learners, teaching to the test, responsibility for student learning, and classroom content and pedagogy. Respondents said that as a result of standards-based reform policies, they focused more on struggling students, trying new approaches to reach them, and increasing their expectations for them. Respondents also reported increasing their personal and group responsibility for student learning, while at the same time feeling stress and pressure from the testing regime. Respondents reported worrying that teaching to the test was narrowing the curriculum, but they also praised the system for eliciting needed improvements in the curriculum. Some teachers said the new state standards required them only to change the order of topics they taught, but other teachers said the standards required them to cover different content and to focus more on student understanding and knowledge retention. Conclusions The findings here of constructive and positive responses stand in stark contrast to a substantial literature that documents negative reactions to NCLB. One explanation might be that earlier attempts at standards-based reform and accountability, such as those documented in this analysis, were much more closely aligned with the theoretical vision of standards-based reform than were later manifestations as codified under NCLB, which have (a) moved away from local discretion, (b) emphasized rewards and sanctions rather than authority (buy-in), and (c) changed the target from standards to focusing on test results, often exclusively.

Principals as Bricoleurs

Purpose: The study investigates the ways in which principals engage with, and attend to, the data-driven accountability measures of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and local mandates. Theoretical framework: The study is framed with the notion of assemblage, a term often associated with actor-network theory (ANT)—a theory that focuses analytic attention on how disparate actors, material, and discursive practices come together to form dynamic associations. Within the assemblage, principals are situated as bricoleurs.Research methods and data: Data for analysis come from interviews conducted with 45 New York City principals between June 2005 and October 2008 as part of a larger ethnographic study examining NCLB, and a series of interviews with 12 of the 45 principals, conducted annually through March 2012. District surveys, various documents, and field notes of participant observation also inform the study. Findings: Principals play active policy roles in negotiating federal regulations and local initiatives, as well as selectively performing assessment and accountability mandates. Principals, who have often been cast in the media as either dupes of the state or as active resistors, negotiate and appropriate external accountability in innovative, sometimes savvy, ways. Implications for practice and research: Principals need to consider institutional circumstances and external accountability not as boundaries or constraints, but rather as available material with which to respond. Future research should aim to examine the ways in which principals engage with data and accountability demands via reflexive interactions with different types of knowledge, mediating artifacts, and methods.

Restrictive Language Education Policies and Emergent Bilingual Youth: A Perfect Storm With Imperfect Outcomes

This article focuses on 2 recent policy changes that have resulted in increased English-only instruction in US schools, with detrimental effects for emergent bilinguals (also known as English language learners): (a) statewide antibilingual education mandates in California, Arizona, and Massachusetts; and (b) the federal passage of No Child Left Behind (NCLB). The causal link between antibilingual education state policies and English-only instruction is transparent, yet NCLB likewise restricts the use of languages other than English in instruction. To support this argument, I share research recently conducted in New York City that demonstrates how the accountability requirements of NCLB have resulted in the dismantling of numerous bilingual education programs. Although restrictive language education policies have been adopted in US schools in the name of improving academic outcomes for emergent bilinguals, this article shares data highlighting how these policies have failed to deliver on their promises, and concludes with implications for future policies.

Classroom, the We Space: Developing Student-Centered Practices for Second Language Learner (SLL) Students

Developing teaching practices that meet the needs of Second Language Learners (SLL) calls for models of apprenticeship in which teacher candidates acquire competency on how to create learning spaces where students discover, experience and construct knowledge rather than solely practicing skills. The aforesaid argument has an implication when defining the competency of highly qualified teachers as framed by the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. This article presents a three-step teacher development process requiring teacher candidates first to observe and analyze exemplary teaching practices. Secondly, to help them build expertise on how to question students to ignite their inquiry. And, thirdly, to develop and implement their practices to create a classroom as the wespace. The outcomes of this model suggest that highly qualified teachers could be better prepared to work with SLL when they are competent in creating inclusive, participatory learning environments, in which students are able to utilize, experiment, synthesize and evaluate knowledge.

The Effects of NCLB on School Resources and Practices

A number of studies have examined the impact of school accountability policies, including No Child Left Behind (NCLB), on student achievement. However, there is relatively little evidence on how school accountability reforms and NCLB, in particular, have influenced education policies and practices. This study examines the effects of NCLB on multiple district, school, and teacher traits using district-year financial data and pooled cross sections of teacher and principal surveys. Our results indicate that NCLB increased per-pupil spending by nearly $600, which was funded primarily through increased state and local revenue. We find that NCLB increased teacher compensation and the share of elementary school teachers with advanced degrees but had no effects on class size. We also find that NCLB did not influence overall instructional time in core academic subjects but did lead schools to reallocate time away from science and social studies and toward the tested subject of reading.

Data Mining from Education Databases Examine the Factors Impacting the School Performance in the United States

Preface: The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) required each state to develop their own method to evaluate individual schools' improvement every year, and states also need to set up an index, called the adequate yearly progress (AYP), as a goal for schools to meet every year. However, what might be the possible factors impacting schools fail to make AYP? Purposes: The purposes of this paper are employing the factor analysis to identify factors which can explain the variation of percentages of schools being identified as in need of improvement Under NCLB regulations. Method: Three educational Databases were used. The correlation and regression analysis are used to examine the degree of relationship between these factors. Results: The percentage of minority students is the main factor impacting the school performance. That is, schools with higher percentage of minority students would more likely fail to make AYP.

What Does the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) Mean for Early Childhood Education? A History of NCLB's Impact on Early Childhood Education and Insights for the Future under ESSA

The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act has had profound and lasting impacts on early childhood education both in the public education sector and in preschool contexts. In light of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), the newest iteration of NCLB, I first trace the history of NCLB's influence on early childhood, which has resulted in placing greater emphasis on assessments for young children, creating early learning standards, and universalizing corporate notions of quality. I then examine several of the new and modified aspects of ESSA, which encourage alignment of early childhood education with K-12 education and across early childhood programs, increased assessments for emergent bilingual children, and the expansion of early childhood education through market-based reforms. With unprecedented emphasis on young children, ESSA will likely have instrumental impacts on early childhood education for years to come.

Becoming a Science Teacher in Texas

This study analyzes the competency of science teachers as it pertains to the passage of the TExES Content Exam. Teacher qualification is determined by the results of standardized tests because of the accountability standards imposed by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). In 2012 the State Board of Education adopted changes to high school graduation requirements which mandate four years of science for those students in the recommended and distinguished achievement high school programs. This change has added urgency for teacher preparation programs to certify even more qualified science teachers. The results of this study may guide policy makers in improving the preparation of science teachers by determining the areas in which effort and support is most needed.

The Changing Face of School Accountability: A Charge to Teacher Educators to Make Radical Changes

Since the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) initiative is being replaced by a much different approach called Common Core Standards (CCS), education’s challenge is to find ways to effectively incorporate the CCS guidelines within local curricula. This paper discusses past, current, and future teacher education as they relate to NCLB and CCS. In addition, four specific recommendations are made as we examine possible features of future teacher preparation programs as they relate to curriculum, instruction, assessment, and academic program decision-making.

How External Institutions Penetrate Schools Through Formal and Informal Leaders

Purposes: This study investigates the role of formal and informal leaders in the diffusion of external reforms into schools and to teachers’ practices. Formal leaders are designated by their roles in the formal organization of the school (e.g., principals, department chairs, and instructional coaches) and informal leaders refer to those who do not have any formal leadership roles but are nominated by other colleagues as influences on their instructional practices. In the context of implementing reading policies associated with No Child Left Behind (NCLB) 2001 legislation, this study aims to examine (a) how formal and informal leaders promote instructional changes through professional interactions with teachers and (b) which types of instructional practices are most responsive to which types of leaders. Research Methods: The authors analyze longitudinal data concerning both professional interactions about teaching reading and instructional practices of teachers and leaders in nine K-8 schools in a single state. Findings and Implications: Formal leaders convey influence on general teaching practices such as setting standards, selecting materials, and assessing students while informal leaders convey influence on specific pedagogical practices (e.g., the use of particular strategies for teaching basic reading skills). Findings contribute to the theoretical and methodological development of both distributed leadership and policy implementation within schools. Moreover, this study suggests the importance of and several strategies for developing a strong instructional leadership team that recognizes and supports the complementary influences of formal and informal leaders.

HEIGHTENED TEST ANXIETY AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ANXIOUS RESPONSES TO HIGH‐STAKES TESTING

This study explored differences in test anxiety on high‐stakes standardized achievement testing and low‐stakes testing among elementary school children. This is the first study to directly examine differences in young students’ reported test anxiety between No Child Left Behind (NCLB) achievement testing and classroom testing. Three hundred thirty‐five students in Grades 3 through 5 participated in the study. Students completed assessments of test anxiety following NCLB testing and typical classroom testing. Students reported significantly more overall test anxiety in relation to high‐stakes testing versus classroom testing on two measures of test anxiety, effect sizes r = −.21 and r = −.10. Students also reported significantly more cognitive (r = −.20) and physiological (r = −.24) symptoms of test anxiety in relation to high‐stakes testing. This study adds to the test anxiety literature by demonstrating that students experience heightened anxiety in response to NCLB testing.

When Accountability Strategies Collide

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) requires that two accountability strategies—raising standards and public pressure through publicizing performance data—be implemented simultaneously. However, when coupled, they may produce an inappropriate consequence for public opinion. The public may misunderstand the drop in achievement that occurs when the bar is raised and become dissatisfied with school performance. To examine this potential negative consequence, the authors analyze data from New York City. The authors find parent satisfaction declined when school performance grades dropped after the implementation of higher standards. This article contributes to our understanding of how the public responds to school accountability data. Because public support for sustained and successful reforms is key, understanding how accountability policies may erode support is critical.

Urban Student Motivation through Inquiry- Based Learning

In 2008, the author attempted to determine if inner city student motivation using inquiry-based learning motivated students to learn the life skills necessary to become democratic citizens. This question will be addressed comparing a traditional and inquiry-based lesson. The traditional lesson used direct-instruction as the primary vehicle for information. The inquiry-based lesson used a Mock Nuremburg Trial as the basic unit of instruction following the unit on WWII. The author used completion rate, participation, and retention to determine improvements in student motivation during the inquiry-based lesson. With the implementation of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2001. Schools across the country have been trying to improve their core curriculums. As the nation is beginning to shift toward Common Core Assessments, inquiry-based learning is one of the prominent vehicles in social studies education to promote the values of Common Core and critical thinking skills in students.

The Theatre of Competing Globally: Disguising Racial Achievement Patterns with Test-Driven Accountabilities

A discourse placing schools in the service of the economy has become ubiquitous in the United States (US), and current educational policies, including No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and movements, such as the Common Core Learning Standards, have been positioned as necessary in an account of global competitiveness. In this hegemonic script, implementing standardization and test-driven accountabilities across schools become not only the means, but also the goals of reform. This, we argue, undermines policy aims to reduce the persistent racial achievement gap. Here, we reconsider NCLB’s accountabilities within “political spectacle,” a framework we use to highlight the purposeful and public enactment of the worldwide educational-economic crisis. We demonstrate that this spectacle, when performed by politicians, city officials, school district administrators, educational support businesspersons, and the media, draws attention away from the ways in which NCLB negatively impacts poor, Black, and Latino youth who disproportionately attend “failing” public schools. Drawing upon data ethnographically collected in New York City (NYC) between June 2005 and October 2010, we reveal education officials and politicians justifying accountability in terms of global competiveness—often to reap personal benefit and political support—while minimizing the ways in which racial disparities continue even a decade after the implementation of NCLB mandates.

A longitudinal study of a state-wide reading assessment: the importance of early achievement and socio-demographic factors

Eliminating inequity in public education is a central goal of the No Child left Behind (NCLB) act. Controlling for 3rd-grade performance, the impact of English language learner (ELL) status, socioeconomic status (SES), and special education (SPED) status on a cohort’s reading performance was investigated from elementary to high school through a multilevel framework. Results in Hawaii show that the negative impact of low SES and SPED status persists up to high school, while the disadvantage of ELL status is restricted within the elementary grades. Moreover, individual characteristics, not school characteristics, have a dominant impact on future reading performance. Among individual characteristics, early performance is a crucial factor for future academic achievement. The findings show that educational policies that use incentives and sanctions such as NCLB to close achievement gaps may not be successful.

A case study of urban public high school students' perspectives of their school as 'in need of improvement' under No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

A case study of urban public high school students' perspectives of their school as 'in need of improvement' under No Child Left Behind (NCLB)