Nixtamalization Process Research Articles

Effects of Annealing and Concentration of Calcium Salts on Thermal and Rheological Properties of Maize Starch During an Ecological Nixtamalization Process

The objective of the present work was to study the effect of annealing and concentration of Ca(OH)2 (lime) and calcium salts on the thermal and rheological properties of maize starch during an ecological nixtamalization process. Thermal and rheological properties of maize starch changed during the ecological nixtamalization process because of three main causes: the annealing phenomenon, type of calcium salt, and calcium salt concentration. In all treatments thermal properties (To, Tp, and Tf) of nixtamal starch increased owing to the annealing process, whereas the type of salt or lime increased thermal properties and decreased pasting properties in this order: CaCl2 > CaSO4 > Ca(OH)2 ≈ CaCO3. This behavior was because of the dissociation of each salt or lime in water. Anions (OH−) can penetrate much more easily into the starch granule and start the gelatinization process by rupturing hydrogen bonds. Additionally, amylose‐lipid complexes were formed during the nixtamalization processes, as indicated by an increasing peak at 4.5 Å in X‐ray diffraction patterns.

An empirical test of shell tempering as an alkaline agent in the nixtamalization process

It has been argued that the transition to maize based diets across much of the Eastern Woodlands of North America ca. A.D. 1000 was the primary catalyst for the population increases, technological innovations, and fundamental shifts in social and cultural organization characteristic of Late Woodland, Mississippian, Upper Mississippian, and Iroquoian societies. However, raw or uncooked maize kernels alone are known to be a nutritionally inadequate subsistence staple. Nixtamalization, or the alkaline processing of dried raw maize to produce hominy, yields a more readily digestible and therefore healthier food resource. Such processing is ubiquitous amongst maize-based societies in the Americas. The timing of the transition to maize agriculture was also closely associated with the adoption of shell-tempered ceramics. As a result, an hypothesis has been offered by multiple authors that burned and crushed mollusc shell aplastic may act as an alkaline agent in the nixtamalization process. The research reported here provides a formal empirical test of this hypothesis. Findings indicate that no substantial structural or chemical changes to maize kernels result from the leaching of shell tempering alkaline products from the fabric of a ceramic vessel. Two constraints are noted in this process: the reduction in adherence of wet paste due to the addition of mussel shell derived calcium oxide (lime) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) as a tempering agent, and the necessity to avoid the decomposition of calcium carbonate to lime or slaked lime in order for the successful firing of shell-tempered vessels.

Effect of Malting and Nixtamalization Processes on the Physicochemical Properties of Instant Extruded Corn Flour and Tortilla Quality.

This research aimed to prepare instant flour from malted and raw (un-malted) corn flours nixtamalized by the extrusion process and evaluate the effect on the physicochemical properties of tortillas prepared using these flours. White maize was malted for 24 h, dried at 50 ± 1 °C, and ground. Subsequently, 0.3 % lime and 25 or 30 % water were added to ground malted or un-malted corn, and the mixture was refrigerated (4 °C) for 12 h. These samples were nixtamalized by an extrusion process in a single screw extruder at two temperature profiles within four heating zones, TP1 (60, 60, 70, and 80 °C) and TP2 (60, 70, 80, and 90 °C), to obtain corn flour. Water was added to the extruded corn flours to make a dough, or masa, and the masa was then molded and baked to obtain tortillas. The corn flours were characterized according to their ability to absorb water and viscosity profile (RVA). The firmness and rollability after 2 and 24 h of storage were determined, and a sensory evaluation was conducted. The malted corn flour extruded with a 25 % moisture content and TP2 temperature profile yielded tortillas with the best firmness and rollability. In conclusion, the changes during the malting of corn grain and the nixtamalization by the extrusion process improved the water absorption capacity of flours and textural properties of the tortilla and produced a product with acceptable sensory properties.

Effect of the Nixtamalization Process on the Dietary Fiber Content, Starch Digestibility, and Antioxidant Capacity of Blue Maize Tortilla

Nixtamalization is an ancient process developed by the Mesoamerican cultures. Initially, volcanic ashes were used and then calcium hydroxide in commercial production, and more recently nixtamalization with calcium salts (NCS) has been proposed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of NCS on carbohydrate digestibility and antioxidant capacity in the elaboration of blue maize tortillas. NCS in blue tortillas showed a high amount of total dietary fiber (14.27 g/100 g), the main fraction being insoluble dietary fiber. The contents of resistant starch and slowly digestible starch did not change with the nixtamalization process. The predicted glycemic index value was lower in blue tortillas with the NCS process (58) than with the traditional nixtamalization process (71). In general, NCS in blue tortillas presented a higher antioxidant capacity than traditional tortillas (ferric reducing antioxidant power method), indicating that phenolics present in blue maize maintain their activity after cooking. It can be concluded that the nutraceutical features (high dietary fiber content and antioxidant capacity) of blue maize tortillas are enhanced when they are elaborated with the NCS process.

Optimización de nixtamalización de frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Y desarrollo de un nuevo producto alimenticio

The purpose of this study was to develop a new alternative for the use of aged beans with clear pericarp by optimizing its nixtamalization process to obtain a flower (NBF) that could be used as a partial substitute of the main ingredient in the elaboration of highly consumed products in Mexico, such as tortillas. Two varieties of bean (Bayomex and Flor de mayo) were nixtamalized. Twelve traditional nixtamalization treatments were used, which were obtained from the combination of four cooking times (35, 40, 45 and 50 min), four resting times (12, 13, 14 and 15 h), and four lime concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 %). Results showed that the optimal conditions to obtain flower from nixtamalized bean were 35 min of cooking, 12 h of rest, and 2 % of lime concentration. The protein, lime and fiber contents varied between both varieties within the ranges of 17.02 - 25.5, 0.08 - 0.51 and 7.8 - 8.3 %, respectively. Tortillas made with HBF and nixtamalized corn flower in porcentual proportion of 10-90 and 20-80, respectively, had good nutritional and sensorial quality.

Obtención de parámetros tecnológicos para la elaboración de productos nixtamalizados, tipo snacks fritos, a partir de cereales alto andinos

Objetivo: Elaborar Productos Nixtamalizados a partir de Cereales Alto Andinos (Maíz, Quinua y Kiwicha).
 Método: Es una investigación científica tecnológica de diseño experimental, aplicada para determinar el proceso de nixtamalización con cereales alto andinos. El Método propuesto es el proceso de nixtamalización el cual consiste en el cocimiento del Cereales Alto Andinos (Quinua, Kiwicha y Maíz) en una solución alcalina elaborada con cal. Para lograr la remoción del pericarpio, suavizar la textura del grano e impartir el sabor característico a los productos nixtamalizados. Una vez cocidos los granos se molturan en húmedo para obtener una masa, la cual es laminada, cortada, horneada y frita. Para luego ser envasada en condiciones óptimas. Resultado: Se encontró los porcentajes adecuados de cal para la nixtamalización de la Quinua y la Kiwicha, los cuales fueron 1.5% y 1% respectivamente. El tiempo y temperatura adecuada para la cocción de la Quinua y la Kiwicha fue de 15min. Y 90°C para ambos cereales. El tiempo y la temperatura de horneado para la masa de cereales nixtamalizados fue de 7 min. Y 180°C. El tiempo y temperatura de fritura del producto fue de 1.5 min a 200°C. Conclusiones: Con los experimentos realizados se logró establecer un método adecuado para la elaboración de un nuevo producto nixtamalizado, demostrándose que es un producto rentable económicamente y de aceptación en la población consumidora de snacks fritos.

Changes in chemical, viscoelastic, and textural properties of nixtamalized dough with nejayote

Nixtamalization is an important process because it results in an increased calcium intake in consumers eating products that have been thus prepared. Nixtamalization generates a high amount of organic waste called nejayote. The objective of this research was to evaluate the chemical, textural, and viscoelastic properties of nixtamalized dough with the addition of nejayote and nejayote solids. A 4×4 two-factor (percentage of nejayote solids and nejayote concentration) factorial design was applied. Results demonstrated that ashes and CaCO3 increase significantly in nixtamalized dough with nejayote. Textural parameters, hardness, and cohesiveness of dough with nejayote solids added did not show significant differences. Nixtamalized dough with whole nejayote appears to increase hardness and decrease cohesiveness. Control dough and nixtamalized dough with diluted nejayote 1:1 (100 g nejayote:100 g water) and 30 g/100 g of nejayote solids added did not show significant differences in cohesiveness, resilience, total elasticity, storage modulus (G′), loss modulus (G″), and loss tangent (tan δ). Total elasticity of nixtamalized dough with diluted nejayote is higher than that of the control dough. Consequently, using diluted nejayote and adding nejayote solids during the nixtamalization process may be an appropriate method by which to reduce organic waste.

Resistant Starch Formation in Tortillas from an Ecological Nixtamalization Process

The objective of this work was to study the formation of resistant starch (RS) in tortillas from an ecological nixtamalization process compared with the traditional nixtamalization process. The RS increased through all the steps of tortilla production. It was found that the increase of the RS corresponds mainly to the formation of RS5 (V‐amylose‐lipid complex), but in tortillas two major types of RS coexist: RS5 and RS3 (retrograded starch). In general, tortillas from the ecological nixtamalization process gave higher values of protein, lipids, total dietary fiber, insoluble fiber, soluble fiber, and RS compared with tortillas from the traditional nixtamalization process and commercial flour. The highest glycemic index (GI) occurred in the tortillas from commercial flour, whereas tortillas from 0.4% CaCO3 and 0.6% CaSO4 were classified as medium‐GI (GI 50–70). Tortillas from 0.6% CaCl2 had the lowest value of GI. The ecological nixtamalization processes caused significant differences in quality and nutritional properties of tortillas.

Design and construction of low shear laminar transport system for the production of nixtamal corn dough

The tortilla is obtained by the traditional process of nixtamalization. This process has two disadvantages: production of liquid waste and it is in batches. Extrusion has resolved the problem of liquid waste, however, extrusion as of yet, has not been able to replace the traditional process of nixtamalization. This is because corn dough is a pseudoplastic fluid, which changes its viscosity in the presence of high shear velocities that occur inside the extruder. With this in mind, the following investigation proposes the mechanical design and construction of a low shear laminar transport system (LSLTS) for the production of corn dough for tortillas. This system consists of two thermally isolated stages: transport and cooking stages. The results showed that the prototype obtained meets the characteristics of homogenous cooking, low shear, absence of liquid waste and the product meets the specifications for nixtamal dough.

Effect of the nixtamalization with calcium carbonate on the indigestible carbohydrate content and starch digestibility of corn tortilla

There is a growing interest for an environment-friendly nixtamalization process. Nixtamalization with calcium salts generates a minimum level of polluting residues. The effect of a nixtamalization process with calcium carbonate (NCC) on the indigestible carbohydrate content and starch digestibility of tortillas was evaluated. Traditional and NCC tortillas showed lower moisture content than commercial tortillas. Similar protein, ash, and carbohydrate content were found for the three tortillas, but NCC tortillas showed the highest lipid content. The NCC tortilla had the highest dietary fiber content, with the highest insoluble dietary fiber level. Fresh and stored (96 h) NCC and traditional tortillas showed similar resistant starch content. Fresh traditional tortilla showed the highest slowly digestible starch (SDS), but upon storage the rapidly digestible starch (RDS) content of NCC tortilla decreased. Fresh traditional and NCC tortillas had lower predicted glycemic index (pGI) than commercial tortillas, and upon storage, the three tortillas presented lower pGI values than their fresh counterparts. Consumption of tortillas produced with the NCC can produce positive effects in the human health.

Propiedades funcionales de harinas de maíz nixtamalizado obtenidas por extrusión a baja temperatura

The aim of this work was to study the effect of temperature on the functional properties of extruded corn flours compared to a flour produced by means of a traditional nixtamalization process. The extrusion treatments were as follows: temperature of 70°C, 75°C, and 80°C; moisture content of 45%, 55%, and 65% w/w; and particle size of 500, 800, and 1300 µm. According to the ANOVA, the temperature significantly affected the functional properties: the water solubility index (WSI), the water absorption index (WAI), adhesion, and relative viscosity. A temperature lower than 80°C favors high viscosity and suitable texture. The principal component analysis revealed that flours with a particle size of 1300 µm have pasting properties that are similar to those of nixtamalized flour, but with a high degree of retrogradation. The flour extruded at 75°C, with 800 µm particle size, and 45% moisture content showed WSI, WAI, and texture similar to those of nixtamalized corn flour, but with a lower viscosity.

Effect of added calcium hydroxide during corn nixtamalization on acrylamide content in tortilla chips

This study has analyzed the influence of lime (Ca(OH)2) concentration used during nixtamalization process on the physicochemical properties of nixtamalized corn flours and its effect on the acrylamide content in tortilla chips prepared from them. Flours prepared from nixtamalized corn with 0.5 and 1.0 g/100 g of Ca(OH)2 showed higher levels of insoluble fiber, lower concentrations of calcium and ash, and a pH close to neutral. The acrylamide content of tortilla chips was correlated with the physicochemical properties of the flours. The results showed that acrylamide content was mainly affected by the ash, calcium, soluble fiber concentration in flour, as well pH value (p < 0.05). In comparison with tortilla chips made of flours prepared from nixtamalized corn with lime concentration of 1.0 g/100 g, a reduction of 52 and 36% in acrylamide content in tortilla chips made with flours prepared from nixtamalized corn with lime concentrations of 1.5 and 2.0 g/100 g, was obtained. The results suggest that controlling the concentration of Ca(OH)2 during nixtamalization process can be used as an effective strategy for reducing acrylamide formation in fried products produced from nixtamalized corn flour.

Effect of annealing from traditional nixtamalisation process on the microstructural, thermal, and rheological properties of starch and quality of pozole

Eleven maize landraces were evaluated for pozole quality. The microstructural, thermal and rheological properties of annealed starch granules determine most of the quality of pozole. Annealed starch in traditional nixtamalisation has an important role in increasing gelatinisation onset (To), peak (Tp) and final (Tf) temperatures; peak, setback and final viscosity as well as the stability of the starch granule, all of which significantly affect pozole quality. Annealed starch in Cacahuacintle nixtamal (pozole end-use) increased temperatures To, Tp and Tf by >5.2, >3.8 and >4.1 °C respectively, and narrowed the range Tf − To from 13.78 to 12.62 °C. The enthalpy was reduced from 6.76 to 5.85 J/g, while the nixtamal starch in tortilla maize landraces presented fewer annealing effects. The annealing effect in nixtamal starch seems to stabilize the starch granules and avoid their collapse, compared to native starch, as shown by the X-ray diffraction peak intensity and pattern that is similar to unprocessed maize. Starch in nixtamal changes from Type A to Type V pattern in pozole. Kernel physical parameters, although important, affected the quality to a lesser extent, with the exception of the flotation index. Cacahuacintle maize landrace showed the best quality and yield as well as a short pozole cooking time.

Nutraceutical Properties of Flour and Tortillas Made with an Ecological Nixtamalization Process

The traditional nixtamalization (TN) process, used for obtaining maize-based products, negatively affects bioactive compounds because of its highly alkaline pH. Recently, an ecological nixtamalization (EN) process has been developed that retains the pericarp and maintains the nejayote (wastewater) within the acidic-neutral range. This study examines the effect of pH on the nutraceutical compounds (NC) of maize, such as polyphenolics and anthocyanins (ANT), as well as the effect on the antioxidant capacity (AC). The highest concentration of total phenolics (TP) in the maize kernel was found in the black and yellow genotypes, the highest concentration of ANT in the black genotypes, and the highest concentration of AC in the red and white genotypes. In the flour, TP levels were between 206 to 400 mg GA/100 g, ANT levels were 141 to 4107 mg cyanidin-3 glucoside/kg, and AC levels were 2544 to 3001 mg AA/kg. In tortillas, TP levels were 255 to 319 mg GA/100 g, ANT levels were 32 to 3420 mg cyanidin-3 glucoside/kg, and AC levels were from 1513 to 2695 mg AA/kg. The reduced loss of soluble solids, the pH, and the formation of compounds with proteins and carbohydrates from the EN process positively affected NC retention.

Effect of Traditional Nixtamalization Process on Starch Annealing and the Relation to Pozole Quality

AbstractSeveral maize landraces were evaluated using microstructural and rheological starch properties and related them to pozole quality. Annealed starch produced during traditional nixtamalization and additional boiling step enhances the viscosity, swelling and starch stability to collapse by forming amylose–lipid complexes. Regarding pozole broth, Cacahuacintle maize (pozole end‐use) presented significantly higher (P &lt; 0.05) soluble solids (0.41%) compared with tortilla end‐use landraces Pepitilla (0.16%) and Celaya (0.32%). The explanation is that Cacahuacintle pozole matrix did not collapse, but it eroded, forming a sponge structure. Celaya had a compact matrix structure. Pozole yield was significantly higher (P &lt; 0.05) in Cacahuacintle as it was 100% soft endosperm type. X‐ray diffraction suggests changes from A‐type starch in nixtamal to V‐type pattern in pozole, typical of amylose–lipid complexes. Those changes in processing and in quality of the final products are important economic issues that merit further investigations concerning annealing temperatures, steeping and processing times.Practical ApplicationsPozole is a pre‐Columbian exotic soup or stew that once had a ritual significance for the Aztecs of Mexico; it is made with a very special floury type of maize named Cacahuacintle. Despite the economic importance of the Cacahuacintle maize race in Mexico and in Southwest U.S.A., the quality characteristics that the maize kernel should have to give good quality pozole are not well known, which is in part due to the ready availability of poor quality canned products in the market. Combined treatments involving starch annealing during nixtamalization and heat treatment of the wet nixtamal during boiling lead to increase the pozole quality. A practical way to produce thermally resistant starches is through the use of selected maize and heat/moisture treatments. The amylose–lipid complexes formed increase starch gelatinization temperatures and its stability to produce puckered granules at water boiling temperatures, giving the unique sponge structure with soft texture and high swelling properties in the final product.

Effect of the alkaline and acid treatments on the physicochemical properties of corn starch

Corn starches were isolated using three different methods: water steeping, alkaline steeping, and acid steeping. The effects on their structural, micro structural, thermal, and chemical properties were evaluated, with especial emphasis in the alkaline process that is close related to the nixtamalization process. The isolation method influences the amylose content, crystallinity, and enthalpy of the starch granules. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the isolation method produced changes on the surface of the granules, and in some cases there were holes on the surface. Method 2 (the alkaline method) produces the starch granules with low protein and fat content and there was an increase in the enthalpy for this method, that can be explained in terms of thermodynamics by the increase of particles into the starch granules, which was confirmed by an increase in the ash content. A negative correlation between these variables was found (r = −0.99), while a positive correlation between enthalpy and amylose content was also found (r = 1).

Effects of extrusion process in snacks of oats–nixtamalized corn pericarp mixtures on dietary fiber content and functional properties

The aim this work was to establish the best conditions to increase the soluble dietary fiber (SDF), evaluate the effect of extrusion on the SDF, and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), in a snack obtained by extrusion, that serve as a source of calcium and DF, using mixtures of oat–corn pericarp. The corn pericarp was obtained from byproduct of nixtamalization process which contains water, calcium hydroxide, soluble solids, and pericarp. The studied parameters were temperature (120–140°C), moisture (200–400 g/kg), and corn pericarp (200–400 g/kg); the responses were expansion ratio, SDF, IDF, and water absorption index (WAI). The R 2 were > 0.85 for all factors. The best conditions were temperature (133°C), moisture (230 g/kg), and corn pericarp (300 g/kg), with responses of 93.1 g/kg increase in SDF, 60 g/kg decrease of IDF, expansion of 1.26, WAI of 4.12 g sediment/g dry solid, and calcium content 4350 mg/kg.

Effect of processing conditions on the production of nixtamalized corn flours by the traditional method

Nowadays, in Mexico and Latin America, calcium content in the diet is a very important issue. This fact is critical since research studies have shown a relationship between consumption of dietary calcium and chronic degenerative diseases. Deficiencies of calcium in Mexican population involve the search for alternative foods that lead to an increase in the daily calcium intake. In this context, the traditional nixtamalization process is a good option for food processing in order to increase calcium content in foodstuffs. This work focused on the development of an effective methodology to establish the relationships among the processing variables in the production of nixtamalized corn flours by the traditional method. A full compound factorial design was used to determine the effect of some independent variables, involved in the nixtamalization, on the response variables such as (a) Ca+2 content in corn flours, (b) particle size distribution (homogeneity), and (c) average energy consumption during grinding.

Gels of ferulated arabinoxylans extracted from nixtamalized and non-nixtamalized maize bran: rheological and structural characteristics

The molecular identity, molecular weight distribution, and microstructure of arabinoxylans from nixtamalized (N-MBAX) or non-nixtamalized (MBAX) maize bran were investigated and correlated to their gelling capability and the gels’ structural and rheological properties. N-MBAX and MBAX presented Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) spectra typical of arabinoxylans. A low-molecular-weight fraction of arabinoxylans was present in MBAX but not in N-MBAX. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that N-MBAX and MBAX present a rough and smooth surface topography, respectively. N-MBAX and MBAX gels were prepared by laccase oxidative cross-linking. N-MBAX and MBAX gels at 6% (w/v) presented an average pore size of 108 and 134 nm and elasticity values of 328 and 62 Pa, respectively. In SEM images, N-MBAX gels appear as a mix of sheets and rigid plates, while MBAX gels present an irregular honeycomb structure. These results indicate that nixtamalization process modify the molecular weight distribution and microstructure of maize bran arabinoxylans as well as the gels structural and rheological properties.

Physicochemical, morphological, and pasting properties of nixtamalized flours from quality protein maize and its particle distribution

Physicochemical, morphological, and apparent viscosity changes of nixtamalized flours from quality protein maize (NFQM) were determined in regard to differing particle sizes distribution, the flours were passed through different sizes of screens namely: 30 (590 μm), 40 (420 μm), 60 (250 μm), 80 (177 μm), and 100 (149 μm) U.S. meshes as a function of the steeping time. The NFQM were prepared by means of traditional nixtamalization process that is reflected in different functionalities of the final products. The calcium content in the different particle size does not follow a linear relationship with the steeping time. The SEM study demonstrates the morphological changes, and the starch granules for different steeping times. An analysis of pasting characteristic based on the profile curves was done in order to study the apparent viscosity of these samples, and it was also found particle size dependence.